All Cards

Dump of all cards' pages (version 2.0).

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This is mainly a (giant) page to ease deck-wide checks in maintenance time. It is a dump of all individual cards' pages.
If you got here not wittingly you will probably prefer to go to the Deck page, and then navigate through the individual card pages.

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Sound Design in Games

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

A deck-based approach to a Pattern Language for Sound Design in Games, strongly influenced by Acoustic Ecology and subject to the principle that Sound Design in Games benefits from being embedded in the overall Game Design.

Relationships

Includes all.

Description

This card is meant to function as a "presentation card" for the deck.
It differs from other cards in the deck in the sense that it was not designed with the goal of representing specific sound design explorations. It rather supports the communication of the overall mindset to which every card is subject.

The card is also used to contextualize other cards that carry high-level concepts or that are transversal to the sound design, as illustrated by the relationships field.

One important role of this card is to make clear that there is more information available besides the limited contents of the card. The front face includes a bloated QR-Code that is meant to emphasize that aspect. It is important to notice that we are not arguing that the cards should be used while accessing the extended information. Actually, our major design goal when designing the front face of this particular card was to establish a clear idea that the cards are, by design, a partial view of the information they address. Still, we argue the usage of cards (subject to that mindset) is meaningful even without access to the respective extended information, either because they may communicate information enough to support design decisions, or because users are already fairly familiar with the extended contents and are able to appreciate the usefulness of short tokens to the respective ideas.

For most effects this card is not considered when counting the number of cards in the deck, which is said to be 77. This may be regarded as the 78^th card – or the 0^th, to be more coherent with its purpose.

Examples

[show less examples...]

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Achievement

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

Signalling something positive.

Relationships

Context:
Awareness , Emotional Script .
Contrasts with:
Failure .

Description

Achievement is arguably the most widely explored use of sound in video games, in all times. It is used to signal virtually all positive happenings during gameplay, such as elemental accomplishments (gathering collectibles, picking power-ups, defeating regular opponents, ...), intermediate success (reaching a checkpoint, unlocking some feature, defeating a boss, ...), collateral achievements (conquering a bonus, earning a trophy, ...), completing the game, etc.

Sounds of Achievement are, to start with, a matter of Awareness, in the sense that they signal a happening, clarifying its interest. Additionally, they have impact in the overall Emotional Script, in the sense that they reward and highlight the player's behaviour.

Considering the potential recurrence of some Achievements along the game experience, they ought to be carefully designed. They are usually short, though the duration may be adapted to the magnitude of the accomplishment.

Since the nature of the Achievement is often abstract, Sound Effects or Music snippets are a common option. In the case of events involving items whose manipulation has an audible Foley (e.g., picking a sack of coins), a sound derived from it may convey a more direct messaging. Other approaches, including diegetic and non-diegetic Dialogue, have been explored as well.

Perhaps the hardest challenge for a sound designer is to ensure (with a certain level of confidence) that a particular sound stimulus will indeed be perceived as "positive".

Sounds of Achievement contrast with those of Failure, which convey the opposite semantics.

Examples

Tomb Raider Underworld:

Tetris: In this implementation (iPhone) a vocal expression "single", "double", "triple", ... is also used.

Ice Age 3:

[show less examples...]

Angry Birds: A case of diegetic interpretation of the success (having the PC celebrating themselves), concluded with a rewarding Music snippet.

Papa Sangre:

Patapon:

LocoRoco:

Peggle:

Sonic the Hedgehog:

Aquaria:

The Path:

Spore Origins:

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Acoustic Ecology

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

Designing sound in a holistic way, as influenced by the discipline of Acoustic Ecology.

Relationships

Contexts:
Aesthetics , Ambiance , Foley , Sound Effects , Music , Dialogue , Foley Music , Diegetic Music , Chitchat , Character Soundprint , Identification .

Description

This card carries the most influential concept inherent to the conception of the whole set of cards in the deck. It may not be very specific in suggesting explorations during sound design but it states a crucial mindset that ought to be present when considering other cards. The Acoustic Ecology can be thought of as the whole set of sounds that are heard during the game. The reason why it is so important to design all sounds as an “ecology” is that sounds have relationships that need to be managed appropriately, in a holistic way. Simply superimposing the sounds from the several Sound Layers is not adequate. To start with, sounds related to entities and events that in turn are related among themselves. But not less importantly, the reverse also applies – the sources of those sounds should also shape their relations as a consequence of the characteristics of their own acoustic expressions, as it happens in a natural ecology [pending:[REF]]. More, in addition to timings, turns, tones and relative strengths, there is also the dimension of coherence. Some games extend the Acoustic Ecology to components other than the gameplay (and Cutscenes when they exist). Namely, Title Screens and Menus may be coherent and integrated – in acoustic terms – with the Acoustic Ecology experienced during gameplay.

Examples

Prototype

Half-Life 2:

InFamous:

Crysis:

[show less examples...]

Grand Theft Auto IV:

Red Dead Redemption:

Patapon:

Assassin's Creed:

Katamari Forever:

Papa Sangre:

Additional Comments

Coherence in the Acoustic Ecology in the subsequent phases of development

Coherence in the Acoustic Ecology is a concern that needs to be thoughtfully transmitted and carried to the implementation phases of sound in the game. We are not dealing with implementation aspects in the scope of these design patterns but we consider that, in this particular case, a remark is opportune. One bottleneck to the integration of sounds in games is the availability of sound files and the scarce ability to produce them from scratch. Off-the-shelf sound libraries are often too expensive or otherwise limited, considering the budget of small projects. Consequently developers are often challenged with the need to combine sounds from sparse origins that are highly incompatibly in aesthetics and acoustic terms (disparate levels of background noise, reverberation, etc.). In turn this may lead to a final result that fails in terms of overall coherency, regardless of the merit of the sound design that may have preceded this phase.

On the concept of Acoustic Ecology

[pending]

External Resources

• Book: "The Acoustic Ecology of the First-Person Shooter" by Mark Grimshaw
• About the Acoustic Ecology in Half-Life 2
• Wrightson, K. An Introduction to Acoustic Ecology. Soundscape: The Journal of Acoustic Ecology, I (I, Spring 2000). 10-13, (2000).
• Other relevant AE Bibliography [pending]

References

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Address Others

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

Enabling the PC to use sound to address NPCs.

Relationships

Context:
Consequent Sound .
May imply:
Sound Input .
Often uses:
Dialogue , Foley .

Description

Some games preview the possibility of the PC being able to address the NPC (diegetically) through a sound stimulus. Solutions include short Dialogue, singing and playing (e.g., Sing to Act), whistling, and car honking. Motivations may relate to the gameplay, or simply be part of the exploratory dimension of the experience.

Examples

Assassin's Creed 2: Ezio addressing hired people either using Dialogue or by whistling, with semantics equivalent to "stay" and "come".

Uncharted 2: Among Thieves: Nathan can exchange compliments with the villagers or even pet a yak, using Dialogue.

Ico: Ico calling Yorda is a Signature of this game. It has high impact in the Emotional Script.

[show less examples...]

Heavy Rain: Ethan calling his son while seeking for him in the middle of the crowd in a shopping centre.

Red Dead Redemption: John calling for a horse. He can also address people, in which case they exchange some compliment.

Spore: When performing the mating call, other members of the same species answer back, which allows locating the nest.

Dead to Rights: Retribution: Jack asking his sidekick dog, Shadow, to perform certain tasks: attacking an enemy, fetching guns, taking cover. In many scenes, Shadow's contributions are instrumental to success.

Shadow of the Colossus: Wander is able to call his horse Agro. The call is adapted to the distance between them.

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time: Saria can be remotely contacted by playing her song in the ocarina.

Grand Theft Auto IV: Endless Ocean: Blue World: The sea whistle can be used to call animal partners. Yet it also makes some other creatures to react (Consequent Sound).

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Aesthetics

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

Defining artistic characteristics common to all sounds.

Relationships

Calls for:
Acoustic Ecology .

Description

Aesthetics, in the scope, refers to the qualities of the sounds used in a particular design, namely the artistic qualities. Defining the sound Aesthetics in a game implies, for instance, that all sounds share the common characteristics inherent to such Aesthetics. Being so, it augments the coherency of particular decisions. In that vein, it may call for a study on the Acoustic Ecology of the game.

The Aesthetics of sound can reinforce that of the other elements in the game (as it can defy it, should that be the purpose). Aesthetical decisions may be based on a multitude of motivations. They usually convey an artistic option and may serve the intention to create an association to a context (such as time, place, technology, culture, ...), support a mood (by being dark, cartoonish, childish, silent, intense, …), explore a particular approach to the composition of sounds being used (minimalist, subjective, musical, non-musical, realistic, …), etc.

Examples

BioShock:

The Path:

Limbo:

[show less examples...]

InFamous: See references below, on to the aesthetic decisions.

The Misadventures of P.B. Winterbottom:

Half-Life 2:

Papa Sangre:

Patapon:

External Resources

Establishing an Aesthetic in Next Generation Sound Design, by Rob Bridgett and Leonard Paul, 2006
Towards Understanding the Audio Aesthetics of Videogames: Genre, by Guillaume Roux-Girard
"The Value of Aesthetics" in Jesse Schell , p.347
Amon Tobin and the Music of "InFamous"

References

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Affected Hearing

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

Simulating hearing impairment.

Relationships

Contexts:
Awareness , Emotional Script , Imminent Death .
May relate to:
Ouch! .

Description

Some games explore the impact of hearing impairment in the Emotional Script. Usually, it is associated to some condition that the player will be induced to avoid.

Examples

inFamous: When facing Imminent Death hearing gets affected and the sound of the blood pressure in the inner ears becomes dominant. This condition effectively communicates the severity of the PC's health, signalling the need to stop taking damage and adopting a behaviour that allows recovery.

Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots: Temporarily deaf and tinnitus after an exploding grenade.

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory: Using a noisy grenade to disturb the enemies and to ease taking them down.

[show less examples...]

Halo: Reach: While using the Active Camouflage ability, diegetic sounds are muffled. (Music is still heard.)

Half-Life 2:

Dead To Rights:

Uncharted: Drake's Fortune:

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Ambiance

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

Sounds of the environment.

Relationships

Contexts:
Relaxation , Emotional Script , Narrative , Entrainment .
Relates to:
Acoustic Ecology .
Calls for:
Variety .

Description

Ambiance consists of the sounds of the environment. It contributes to the appreciation for the scenario, by reinforcing and complementing the graphical representation.

It is one of the Sound Layers of an Acoustic Ecology, along with Foley, Sound Effects, Music, and Dialogue .

Ambiance is usually perceived only when other Sound Layers are absent or low volume. For that reason, from an emotional standpoint, Ambiance is commonly associated to phases of Relaxation, when there are no other stimuli competing for focused attention. Still, in the case of horror games, Ambiance is typically used to support a continued feeling of Anticipation, instead. But, again, also in those cases there are usually few other sounds and, actually, Silence is an important ingredient in the sound composition.

Ambiance can also serve to better establish an association with a particular geographical location through the exploration of archetypes (namely those imported from film tradition).

Examples

Tomb Raider Underworld:

The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion:

Silent Hill Homecoming:

[show less examples...]

Grand Theft Auto IV:

FlOw:

Far Cry 2:

Half-Life 2: A moment of calm allows enjoying the Ambiance.

The Graveyard:

Papa Sangre:

Patapon:

Limbo:

Silent Hill:

Ico:

Crysis:

References

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Anticipation

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

A phase of gameplay anticipating an engagement.

Relationships

Contexts:
Emotional Script , R-A-E-D Iterations .
Peers:
Relaxation , Engagement , Decay .
May call for:
Stealth .
May use:
Music , Entrainment , Heartbeat .

Description

Anticipation is one typical phase of the Emotional Script during gameplay. It is used both alone and integrated in an iterated sequence (R-A-E-D Iterations) that can also involve some or all of the phases Relaxation, Engagement, and Decay.

Sound designers in the movie industry explore Anticipation in very effective ways. Yet, this is one of the aspects where techniques used in film practice are hardly "importable" to game design. In games, contrary to what happens in movies, it is inherently difficult to predict what the player will do next, or even to assess the motivations behind the player's current behaviour. Unless for instance interactivity is compromised by linearizing the gameplay in particular moments (to the possible extreme of inserting a Cutscene), some artificial intelligence may be necessary to infer a proper moment for Anticipation.

Some game genres including survival horror make an extensive use of Anticipation for which it contributes the Ambiance and, for instance, the contrast between apparent Silence and aspects of the Character Soundprint which may trigger critical Engagements (that is, Consequent Sound). The proper nature of the genre, where Engagement is always imminent but seldom announced, makes it meaningful that sounds of Anticipation may be consistently presented even if it is not know if there will be actual Engagement in the next moment.

Examples

The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion:

Far Cry 2:

Papa Sangre: Papa Sangre takes profit of the fact that players are not in full control of their abilities to force risk behaviour and to deal with the uncertainty of the respective consequence.

[show less examples...]

Silent Hill:

Uncharted: Drake's Fortune:

Crysis:

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Awareness

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

Sound signalling some relevant aspect of gameplay.

Relationships

Relates to:
Emotional Script , Narrative .
May use many, including:
Character Soundprint , Failure , Achievement , No Can Do , Window of Opportunity , Hurry Up! , Beacon Locator , Identification , Ouch! , Imminent Death , Seeking for PC , Suspicious NPC , Unaware NPC , ....

Description

Sounds of Awareness expose aspects of a circumstance that demand some degree of attention, relevant to gameplay. These stimuli may either evidence a problem, inform about a state, emphasize an opportunity, or reinforce the outcome of happening.

Many of the sound explorations in a game could be classified as Awareness. Still, some of the explorations approach very specific problems for which also specific solutions have been found. Those include Failure, Achievement, No Can Do, Hurry Up!, Window of Opportunity, Beacon Locator, Ouch!, Imminent Death, Seeking for PC, and Unaware NPC. Even PC's and NPC's Character Soundprint serves the purpose of informing about the character's closeness, Identification, health state, etc.

To a certain extent, sounds of Awareness are mostly unidirectional, i.e., they output something. Yet, if these sounds are designed in a way that they effectively produce changes in the player, namely at the emotional level, they may be instrumental to indirectly shape the players input.

Examples

Assassin's Creed: A pulsing Sound Effect tells that there are attentive guards nearby. Blending with the crowd, as when sitting in a bench, diverts their attention (and consequently the sound mutes).

Tomb Raider Underworld: Checkpoints are (exclusively) signalled through sound (a Sound Effect).

Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots: A beep informs that the Solid Eye is running out of battery (notice selection at the bottom-left corner).

[show less examples...]

Crysis: The voiced warning (Dialogue) makes the player learn that the suit's invisibility is about to be compromised.

Half-Life 2:

Papa Sangre:

LocoRoco: When a Moja is nearby, the playing LocoRoco vocalizes a scared warning, which besides being informative is highly emotional. The LocoRoco can see the Moja before the player does, so this acoustic message gives another additional advantage over graphics.

Ico:

Shadow of the Colossus: A sound warns when Wander ought to find a resting stance, otherwise he will lose grip and fall, most likely to death.

Halo: Reach:

Additional Comments

The advantages of sound over (or in combination) with visuals to implement mechanisms of awareness is one of the aspects claimed by pioneer authors who carried a collective initiative to leverage the recognition of sound as a field of research .

External Resources

It may also be relevant – at least insightful – to consider the state of the art on the design of alarm sounds, ^e.g.

References

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Beacon Locator

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

Items that emit sound to ease their location.

Relationships

Contexts:
Awareness , Identification .
Often uses:
Sound Effects , Directionality .

Description

Frequently, some game entities are supplemented with a soundprint that emphasizes their presence. The role of such soundprint varies, but they all aim some form of Awareness. The fact that Beacon Locators provide information regarding aspects that may be out of sight, and that such acoustic queues are often distinctive, is instrumental for Identification of the source.

The most evident use is in supporting the spotting of collectible items. Often the soundprint of the emitters is not achieved through their own Foley but through some Sound Effect. As an aside, Beacon Locators associated to collectible items are usually immediately followed by a sound of Achievement, should the item be collected.

One other category of examples of Beacon Locator is to provide Awareness for the existence of enemies in the vicinity, sometimes with the advantage of also enabling to identify their direction, through Directionality. In such cases it is common that the detection is provided by aspects of the NPC's Character Soundprint, although it may consist of other sound manifestations of NPC interaction such as Chitchat, etc.

Examples

BioShock: There is no way the player would be surprised by these NPC. Their acoustic expression, in the case Chitchat (serving also as Unaware NPC), let the player know, at a great distance, of their presence.

Assassin's Creed 2: Treasure chests can be detected by their acoustic signature Sound Effect.

InFamous: A Beacon Locator eases the location of a item – in the case a "dead drop" containing Recordings.

[show less examples...]

The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion: The detection of out of sight Nirnroot plants is solely acoustic (Sound Effect).

Far Cry 2: The sound emitted by concealed briefcases containing diamonds is useful to spot them. In this exploration, the sound is only perceptible if the PC is close to the briefcase, and such items are also possible to find by checking a non-acoustic proximity sensor of the handheld GPS (not practical to keep equipped but with a wider range). In this game, tapes (Recordings) can also be found this way.

Papa Sangre: Beacon Locators are consistently explored in this game's gameplay.

The Path: The composition, which mixes Music and some Foley elements, is frequently instrumental in identifying the proximity of some interesting aspect.

Halo: Reach:

External Resources

Distress radiobeacon

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Breath

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

Perceptible sound of breathing.

Relationships

Contexts:
Character Soundprint , Awareness , Emotional Script , Entrainment .
Relates to:
Grunts .
Makes use of:
Foley .

Description

Breath is one possible component of the Character Soundprint that can message particular circumstances, such as fatigue, stress, and pain. Uneasy breath is often complemented by Grunts synchronized with (and possibly replacing) exhalation.

Unlike Footsteps (arguably the most prevalent component of Character Soundprint), Breath is not constantly heard. It is "triggered" by meaningful associations such as hard movement, injury, and emotional situations. This exceptional appearance makes it more noticeable and effective in signalling such associations.

Examples

Crysis:

Heavy Rain: This Cutscene uses Breath to augment the perception of distress.

Mirror's Edge: In this game Breath is highly naturalist and effective in terms of the Emotional Script. All the complexity of timings and intensities of breath holding, sonorous exhalations and Grunts, characterize very efficiently the movements and support an Entrainment that allows the game to be felt in first-person.

The Path: A case of usage of the sound of Breath not exactly to represent the PC's actual breathing but to characterize a context in terms of the Emotional Script.

[show less examples...]

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory: Breath complements the Character Soundprint in a context when it makes sense.

Penumbra: Overture:

Half-Life 2: In this case the semantics is reversed. We hear Freeman trying to hold his Breath, not to get drown, which is a clear indicator of Imminent Death that is also very effective in terms of the Emotional Script.

Papa Sangre: Breath helps to characterize the pace (running, instead of walking) and provides one more element to give existence to a character who the player never sees.

Limbo: Breath (together with Footsteps) puts the focus on the character and messages his effort.

pOnd: Breath as the main (actually the sole) element of gameplay.

Halo: Reach: The gameplay does not allow long runs. This Breath sound helps to accept that is because it is hard for the character to do it.

Silent Hill: The uneasy Breath, after a run, adds to the already distressful Acoustic Ecology.

Mini Ninjas: Amongst the several selectable PC, Futo is the only one whose breath is perceptible (when running). This singularity in the Character Soundprint makes sense considering is physical characteristics.

Deadly Premonition:

Dead to Rights:

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Character Soundprint

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

The set of sounds of a PC or NPC.

Relationships

Context:
Awareness , Identification , Signature , Emotional Script .
May use:
Footsteps , Grunts , Breath , Heartbeat , Chitchat , Dialogue , Foley , Sound Effects , Acoustic Ecology .
May relate to:
Stealth , Unaware NPC , Seeking for PC .

Description

The Characters' Soundprint define their acoustic identity.

Character Soundprint is a matter of great importance for disparate reasons. To start with, Character Soundprint is relevant for the sake of Awareness. That includes providing the sense of presence and signalling basic activity. With that purpose there is a set of sound explorations that are consistently used, such as:

• Footsteps, definitely the most used;
• Grunts, very common and effective in signalling efforts;
• Breath, usually just for the PC and reserved to conditions like enduring efforts or extreme emotional conditions;
• Sound Effects, which depending on the type of character, may be pertinent in addition or in substitution of those elements (for instance, and imaginary or abstract character).

Also, characters usually express themselves through a language, which may be actual Dialogue and/or more basic utterances (e.g., Shout and Yell or even simpler Grunts).

Additionally, Character Soundprint may also be relevant in terms of Identification, that is, in providing the means for the player to be able to distinguish between different types of characters. Identification may be achieved through the design of disparate Signatures for those types of characters, by establishing some uniqueness in characters' soundprints. Besides being potentially interesting in terms of gameplay the diversity also can contribute to the Acoustic Ecology. In turn, singular Character Soundprints can be explored to establish a memorable experience and brand.

Examples

Mini Ninjas: Suzume is particularly noticeable by the flute that she plays while idle and to enchant opponents (but which can also be used as a regular baton).

Portal: GLaDOS's soundprint is all about voice, and an extraordinary discourse.

Ice Age 3: The soundprint of Scrat is instrumental to make it being perceived as a lively, emotional, and nervous creature.

[show less examples...]

BioShock:

Papa Sangre: In a game where there is no visual perception of the characters, their soundprints are crucial to establish their existence and to grasp their actions and attitudes at any particular instant. That applies to both the NPC and the PC.

Halo: Reach: The soundprint of this particular type of opponent confers them a temperament that potentiates an emotional tension when the player is faced with the need to kill them.

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Chitchat

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

Dialogue that is not central to the course of action.

Relationships

Contexts:
Character Soundprint , Emotional Script , Unaware NPC .
Possibly with:
Grunts .
Makes use of:
Dialogue , Acoustic Ecology .

Description

Chitchat encompasses the forms of NPC Dialogue which are relevant to participate in the game's Acoustic Ecology but which do not carry information relevant for the gameplay. Chitchat can also integrate solutions to represent Unaware NPC and to denounce NPC location (a form of Beacon Locator), but those are different cases of Awareness that we don't intend to reach in this particular card.

Examples

Assassin's Creed 2: Dense background conversations including Chitchat are very consistent in this game.

The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion: Some Chitchat sentences, like the variants referring mud crabs are part of the game's Signature. Also, sometimes Chitchat is directed to the PC.

Far Cry 2: Inside ceasefire zones, and contrary to what happens in all the rest of the territory, occupants Chitchat while they are tolerant to the PC's presence (i.e., even if they are aware of the PC)

[show less examples...]

Infamous: In Infamous part of the NPC's Dialogue is Chitchat that not only integrates the Acoustic Ecology but, more interestingly, shapes it, according to an Emotional Script that evolves during the game in function of the player's actions.

Uncharted: Drake's Fortune: A piece of Dialogue between the PC and a NPC which contributes to contextualize their motivations but which is not particularly related to the ongoing actions. Actually, the frivolous character of the conversation ends up being recognized by the characters themselves.

External Resources

On the technique called walla walla: http://www.ruyasonic.com/sfx_walla.htm

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Consequent Sound

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

Designing the game world so that is sensitive to sound.

Relationships

May use many, including:
Make Sound not War , Sing to Act , Rhythm Gameplay , Echolocation , Address Others , Stealth , Sound Decoys , Sound Suppressing , Sonic Weapon , Eavesdropping , ....
May imply:
Sound Input .

Description

The attention that entities in the game world have towards the presence of the PC is extensible to its acoustic expression. That is, in the same way that the visual identification of the PC matters for the game world, the relevance of its acoustic expressions is also meaningful. Conversely, the ability for the character to hear can also be explored beyond the strict Awareness of what happens in the vicinity.

Designing an acoustic presence for the PC and consequences for such expressions enlarges considerably the designers' creative space and allows taking proper advantage of interactivity. Particular explorations include performing Stealth actions, using mechanisms of Sound Suppressing, luring or diverting others' attention through Sound Decoys, explicitly performing sound to achieve a certain result (e.g., as in Sing to Act and Rhythm Gameplay), communicating with other characters (Address Others), using Sonic Weapon, or other behaviours that value non-destructive intervention Make Sound not War. Sounds emitted by the character/player may consist of actual player's Sound Input or may be virtually produced, either as part of the Characters' Soundprint or through actions that they may perform.

In turn, designing the PC's ability to interpret consequent sound emitted by other characters, allows extending the gameplay to include behaviour where that interpretation is actively pursued, such as Eavesdropping and performing Echolocation.

Examples

Penumbra: Overture

Spore:

Spore Origins:

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time:

[show less examples...]

Papa Sangre:

Grand Theft Auto IV: Using the car horn next to pedestrians makes them get stressed or scared and react accordingly, including through Dialogue. In specific circumstances, the horn can be used to Address Others who may be receptive to that kind of call.

Commandos BCD:

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory:

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Contextual Music

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

Music specific to particular contexts or levels.

Relationships

Contexts:
Narrative , Emotional Script .
May relate to:
Diegetic Music .
Makes use of:
Music .

Description

Music is frequently used to characterize specific contexts. These contexts may be regions in the scenario, levels, categories of circumstances, etc.

Designing Contextual Music is more prone to contribute to the fitness of Music in each particular moment along the experience, than a "global" game Music alone would. The succession of the pieces of Contextual Music, as heard by the player, allows a transposition to the Music level of the global Emotional Script of the experience.

Contextual Music may come from the game world itself (Diegetic Music) but that is neither mandatory nor even the most frequent case.

Also, Contextual Music may be designed so that the Variety it propitiates contributes to a constantly renewed experience.

A particular type of contextual variations on Music that we are addressing separately is the change according to the current involvement in the game's conflict. Those explorations are integrated in the design of Relaxation, Anticipation, Engagement and Decay.

Examples

Flower: An exploration of Contextual Music in the Menus, to unfold the Emotional Script along the experience. In the beginning of the game the Menu presents an Acoustic Ecology (predominantly Ambiance) allusive to a emotionally negative environment. As the game progresses, it becomes more positive and eventually it becomes highly rewarding, which also supports very effectively the inherent Narrative.

The Path:

LocoRoco: The contextuality of Music is impressive. It depends not only on the level but also on the selected type of LocoRoco (they are 6 and can be chosen in any level). Also, Music is adapted to the acoustics of the space (e.g., reverberation inside an ice cave). Even more interestingly, the more the LocoRoco the more the singing voices, which impacts considerably in the Emotional Script. The Variety provided by all this contextuality propitiates a constantly renewed experience.

[show less examples...]

Patapon:

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time: Music is dependent on the map region.

The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion: Music depends on space and highly related to the kind of emotions those spaces have to offer. In this example the change in the Emotional Script is perceptible.

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Cutscenes

	The card's front face	The card's back face

Synopsis

Sound of cinematic pieces.

Relationships

Contexts:
Narrative , Emotional Script .
Peers:
Title Screens , Menus .

Description

In their typical form, Cutscenes are cinematic parts of the game inserted between moments of gameplay. They usually serve the Narrative, and have strong impact in the Emotional Script.

Being static pieces, they are prone to incorporate more closely techniques from film practice, including in terms of the approach to sound. Still, considering the pertinence in keeping the whole product coherent, for instance regarding the Acoustic Ecology, it is relevant that they are considered holistically, in conjunction with the other components of the game – that is, the acoustic composition heard during gameplay but also in the Menus and even in the Title Screens.

It is worth noticing that some modern games include interactive Cutscenes, which present new opportunities and challenges, closer to those of regular gameplay.

What is more, there is controversy regarding the appropriateness of Cutscenes in video games. Some designers defend they are disruptive and compromise immersion, for instance. [pending: Develop this further in "Additional Comments"].

Examples

Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots: A song that plays an important role in several Cutscenes.

Assassin's Creed: A Cutscene consisting mostly of Dialogue.

Silent Hill:

[show less examples...]

Ico:

Half-Life 2:

Demon's Souls:

Shadow of the Colossus:

Grand Theft Auto IV:

Heavy Rain:

The Binding of Isaac:

The Path:

Patapon:

Additional Comments

There is controversy on the appropriateness of Cutscenes in video games, e.g., as expressed by Steven Spielberg.

Revisions

Introduced as Cut-Scenes (in version 1.0)

References

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Death

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Synopsis

Portraying death.

Relationships

Context:
Failure , Emotional Script , Awareness .
Peers:
Imminent Death , Ouch! .
May use:
Grunts , Foley , Sound Effects , Dialogue .

Description

In games where the idea of "live(s)" is part of the gameplay, the condition of the PC's Death represents an extreme condition of Failure, calling for an appropriate level of Awareness.

Moreover, the ("real-life") concept of death holds inherent associations to emotions that may be explored in games, namely with the contribution of sound design, both to enrich the (Emotional Script) and to emphasize the pertinence of avoiding such condition.

In some games the PC's Death is an acoustically complex episode, involving for instance PC's Grunts (Ouch!), NPC's Dialogue (of sympathy or despise), Foley from the action conducing to the death, and some additional Sound Effects.

For the design of PC's Death it is crucial to assess the expected recurrence of dying, according to the gameplay and difficulty level. For instance, Variety may be required to avoid compromising the emotional intention upon repetition.

Conversely, NPC's Death, being a frequent and usually intended event (that is, emotionally positive), usually consists of simpler stimuli serving essentially as a death certificate (Awareness). In some games the possible emotional distress related to the idea of death is completely absent and the "termination" of opponents is purely characterized as an Achievement.

Examples

InFamous: Death coming as the conclusion of a non reversed condition of Imminent Death.

Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots: Death as a deeply emotional episode, including despair comments from friendly NPC, also supported by powerful visuals.

Uncharted: Drake's Fortune: [several instances] The Dialogue from friendly NPC plays a strong emotional role in the perception of Death.

[show less examples...]

Mirror's Edge: The Foley sounds of the body crashing in the ground effectively convey an uncanny sense of embodiment.

Half-Life 2: The Foley of the action causing Death, followed by an impaired perception of the Ambiance.

Pac-Man: Despite the non realistic scenario and the frequency of the event, this sound keeps being emotionally effective.

Papa Sangre: The tension maintained during the gameplay and the embodied violence of the attack make Death an emotionally intense experience.

Patapon: The Death of individual patapons is mixed with the on-going composition.

Ico: A rare (also sonic) characterization of Death. The fulminant Sound Effect exposes a baffling sense of impotence and irreversibility once the condition is met, contrasting with the players urge to avoid it. The PC doesn't even have the chance to participate in the composition (e.g., no Grunts).

Shadow of the Colossus:

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory:

The Binding of Isaac:

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Decay

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Synopsis

A phase of gameplay of reestablishment after an engagement.

Relationships

Contexts:
Emotional Script , R-A-E-D Iterations .
Peers:
Relaxation , Anticipation , Engagement .
May use:
Music , Dialogue , Entrainment .

Description

Decay is a transient phase in the game's Emotional Script. Its opportunity is dictated by the gameplay and it has a short duration. It aims at leading or supporting the player while changing from a state of high arousal (e.g., the end of an Engagement) to a state of low arousal (as Relaxation). Usually these several phases relate in a iterated sequence (R-A-E-D Iterations).

A common approach is to perform a fade out in the ongoing (Engagement) Music. Other approaches in term of Music include presenting a short piece of Music evoking "discharge" or to serve the piece that would be the ending of the ongoing composition. Other approaches using Entrainment, are also interesting. Some designers also opted to explicitly informing the player about the change in arousal states through diegetic Dialogue.

Examples

Halo: Reach:

Assassin's Creed:

Need for Speed Undercover:

[show less examples...]

Far Cry 2:

Half-Life 2:

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Dialogue

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Synopsis

All kinds of conversation.

Relationships

Many contexts, including:
Narrative , Emotional Script , Character Soundprint , Narrator , Thoughts , Helper Voice , Recordings , Chitchat , Seeking for PC , ....
Relates to:
Acoustic Ecology .
Calls for:
Variety .
May call for:
Subtitles and Captions .

Description

Dialogue consists of all forms of discourse presented along the game.

Dialogue is instrumental in communicating the story (Narrative, and e.g., Recordings), aspects of the gameplay, what the characters think (e.g., Thoughts), their state of mind (e.g., Unaware NPC, Suspicious NPC, Seeking for PC), and their feelings (other messages contributing to the Emotional Script).

Dialogue is usually associated to characters – and it can even constitute an important element of their Character Soundprint – but it can also come from other sources, as in some cases of Narrator and Helper Voice.

Dialogue can be implemented through actual Voice Acting (and possibly Dubbing). Yet, there are noticeable cases in which designers decided not to have actual voicing and opted to have Subtitles and Captions instead. Subtitles and Captions may also be pertinent when considering that not all players may be familiar with the language(s) used, and also the ear impaired.

Dialogue may also be used as an instrument to enrich and confer more aliveness to an Acoustic Ecology, for instance by "allowing" NPC to talk to each other (e.g., Chitchat) or by giving voice to a crowd.

One aspect that tends to be more noticed in Dialogue than in other Sound Layers (Foley, Sound Effects, Ambiance, and Music) is the need for Variety, most probably because repetition is perceived as less plausible in this case.

Examples

Red Dead Redemption:

Deadly Premonition: In this game Dialogue adds a lot to the experience, not only by the contents of the discourse but also by the intonations and general Aesthetics of the conversations.

The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion:

[show less examples...]

Half-Life 2: This scene includes disparate explorations of Dialogue. For instance some of the action is experienced exclusively through the discourse, with no visual support.

Portal:

Ico:

LittleBigPlanet:

Katamari Forever:

iGadget: "No Dialogue" as a design option (no sound in Dialogue, that is). All conversations are mute and their contents are graphically presented through subtitles.

Crysis:

Heavy Rain:

Halo: Reach:

Grand Theft Auto IV:

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Diegetic Music

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Synopsis

Music happening in the game world.

Relationships

Context:
Narrative , Emotional Script .
May relate to:
Contextual Music , Musical Outcome .
May use:
Radio .
Makes use of:
Music , Acoustic Ecology .

Description

Diegetic Music is the particular exploration of Music in which the player acknowledges that such music exists inside the game world. In that sense Diegetic Music can be directly explored as an element of the Narrative.

Diegetic Music may be the Musical Outcome of some designed game activity. It may also be the Music that characterizes a certain game context (Contextual Music).

The inherent integration of Diegetic Music in the game world holds the potential to make it fit naturally in the Acoustic Ecology of the game.

Examples

Silent Hill 2

BioShock: This game makes a extensive use of Diegetic Music, with an unusual Aesthetics, that highly contributes to the game's acoustic Signature. In this particular (and relevant) scene it is being performed live.

Grand Theft Auto IV: When driving it is possible to choose the kind of Diegetic Music by changing the radio station in car's radio set.

Heavy Rain: In this particular scene, the player participates in the playing of a piece of Diegetic Music. This scene fits perfectly the mood and the moment in the Narrative.

[show less examples...]

Far Cry 2: A Radio tuned in the local radio station is a common finding.

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory:

Halo: Reach:

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time:

LocoRoco: The music is vocalized by the LocoRoco (we can see their mouths moving). In addition, the more the LocoRoco the more the number of voices.

The Graveyard:

External Resources

Some definitions of "Diegetic" and "Diegesis":

• http://www.answers.com/topic/diegesis
• http://www.allwords.com/word-diegetic.html (senses 1. and 2.)

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Directionality

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Synopsis

Exploring the identification of the direction of a sound source.

Relationships

Contexts:
Awareness .
May relate to:
Beacon Locator , Shout and Yell , Unaware NPC , Suspicious NPC .

Description

Directionality refers to the explorations of sound design that intentionally take advantage of that or even tweak it in some way, to achieve an effect, for instance in terms of the gameplay.

Beacon Locator is one kind of exploration that may resort to Directionality.

Directionality may be even explored as part of the game Aesthetics, for instance in Ambiance. A wandering fly and passing helicopters are fairly common examples.

Modern 3D game engines implement directionality to some extent.

Examples

Papa Sangre: Practicing the skill of facing a particular direction (only through sound), which is crucial for the gameplay.

Red Dead Redemption: Following the sound to find a point of interest, in the absence of visual clues. (Also, see External Resources).

Far Cry 2: Here the player promptly finds an unexpected NPC through the Directionality of his inquiring utterances (while Suspicious NPC).

[show less examples...]

Killzone 2 [SPOILER VIDEO]: While fighting [SHOW SPOILER] the final boss, being able to locate him through his soundprint is instrumental to succeed .

Halo: Reach: A case in which the NPC's utterances reveal the direction of its position.

External Resources

In an interview , the Audio Director of Red Dead Redemption refers that they "additionally focused on ensuring directionality of enemy gunfire".
Theoretical background on localisation through sound.^{(p. 79)}.

References

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Dubbing

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Synopsis

Replacing original voices, to adapt to other language.

Relationships

Context:
Dialogue , Voice Acting , Narrative , Character Soundprint .
May call for:
Subtitles and Captions .

Description

Dubbing is used to allow alternate languages to the one adopted in the main Voice Acting. Dubbing may be pertinent not strictly by the players' inability to understand the original language but also by cultural reasons.

Issues with Dubbing are common to those in the practice in movie industry. Apart from the technical difficulties of lip synchronization (when it applies), some expressions are hardly translatable, for instance due to cultural specificities.

As with the original Voice Acting, the choice of voice actors may include marketing motivations that add to the performance itself, should the budget allow it.

Examples

Heavy Rain:

Uncharted: Drake's Fortune:

[show less examples...]

External Resources

Dialogue Editing for Motion Pictures: A Guide to the Invisible Art by John Purcell (2007)
ADR ("Automated" or "Automatic" Dialog Replacement) http://filmsound.org/terminology/adr.htm

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Eavesdropping

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Synopsis

Adopting behaviours with intention of gaining knowledge by listening to others' conversations.

Relationships

Context:
Stealth , Narrative , Emotional Script .
Relates to:
Unaware NPC .
Makes use of:
Dialogue .

Description

Achieving relevant information by Eavesdropping others' conversations is a possible element of the gameplay, which is commonly related to Stealth or low profile action. Eavesdropping can be explored in the design of the gameplay if interesting information is made to be exchanged between characters by means of Dialogue.

Examples

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Laser Microphone T.A.K. (Tactical Audio Kit) / "Laser Mic".

Crysis 2: The "Nanosuit 2" features eavesdropping abilities.

Thief II: The Metal Age: The 5th mission implies eavesdropping a conversation.

Assassin's Creed: Altair Eavesdropping two NPC at distance. This is a form of investigation, which follows a specific procedure.

Crysis: The binoculars also include a shotgun-like microphone, which allows having a better perception of the sound of "not so close" NPC.

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory:

[show less examples...]

External Resources

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell "Laser Microphone T.A.K. (Tactical Audio Kit)": Splinter Cell Wiki, IGN Guides

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Echolocation

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Synopsis

Using sound to perceive the environment.

Relationships

Context:
Consequent Sound , Awareness , Emotional Script .
May imply:
Sound Input .

Description

Echolocation is about the use of sound with the purpose of perceiving aspects about the environment.

Echolocation is a technique used by some animals (noticeably, bats and dolphins) . Here the concept is taken broadly, encompassing all techniques in which sound is part of the method and the spatial information is part of the outcome.

Examples

Devil's Tuning Fork: Momentary perception of the space through the visualization of emitted sound waves. The PC is a blind child.

Spore: Performing the mating call, allows locating the nest, through the answer of the other members of the same species.

Shadow of the Colossus: The Sound Effect helps searching and perceiving the point where light converges to.

[show less examples...]

Silent Hill: The radio Harry found at the "Cafe 5to2 diner" picks up static when an enemy is close by.

Additional Comments

The term "Echolocation" was coined by Donald Griffin in 1944, to describe the phenomenon by which bats could use reflected sounds to detect objects (which he and a fellow scientist first demonstrated in 1938). The presentation of his discovery is surrounded by interesting stories of disbelief and rejection, namely within the scientific community.

References

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Emotional Script

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Synopsis

Sound designed to elicit emotions along the experience.

Relationships

Relates to:
Narrative .
May use many, including:
R-A-E-D Iterations , Cutscenes , Window of Opportunity , Music , Contextual Music , Achievement , Failure , Grunts , Ouch! , Imminent Death , Trance , Entrainment , ....

Description

A game "experience" is built upon the memory of the emotions the player visits. In order to optimize the emotional relevance of every moment the player is interacting with the game product, an Emotional Script ought to be thoughtfully designed.

Sound holds great potential in the design of the Emotional Script. Sound can be used to portrait a certain emotional state with advantages over the visual clues (e.g., a character who laughs, or cries, or groans to indicate discomfort or fear, or verbally details a feeling). In addition to momentary emotional characterisations, sound can also be used to communicate the overall emotional development along time (e.g., through the migration between distinct acoustic moods, or through the progressive addition or subtraction of elements to the composition).

In addition to the comprehensive exploration of the emotional plane that this pattern suggests, the Deck contains other design patterns that, depending on the specific explorations, may also contribute to some of the pieces in that Emotional Script. Elicited emotions may include: satisfaction (e.g., Achievement), disappointment (e.g., Failure, Death), excitement (e.g., Engagement), amazement (e.g., Revelation), elation (e.g., Title Screens), tension (e.g., Anticipation, Engagement, Imminent Death, Hurry Up!, Window of Opportunity, Silence), serenity (e.g., Relaxation, Trance), anxiety (e.g., Silence, Noise), fear (e.g., Breath, Heartbeat), empathy (e.g., Ouch!, Grunts, Thoughts), relieve (e.g., Decay), interest (e.g., Awareness), affection (e.g., Make Sound not War), etc.
[pending: classification inspired in EARL [REF: http://emotion-research.net/projects/humaine/earl]]

Examples

Flower: The game propitiates a journey from the sadness of a polluted and lifeless environment to the pleasure and contentment of recovering it. This happens both at the macro level (observable for instance in the evolution of the Acoustic Ecology that accompanies the Menu) and inside each particular level where each small contribution represents and advancement in an acoustic composition, occasionally further animated by some bursts (both acoustic and visual).

Thief III: Deadly Shadows: In this particular instance the NPC ends up revealing his true state of mind by eventually groaning in fear.

Ice Age 3:

[show less examples...]

Papa Sangre:

LocoRoco: In the example, a moment of relative affliction is emphasized by the utterances of the characters involved. In general, sound design in this game is highly emotive, for which contribute aspects such as the Music, all Character’s Soundprint, the way sound participates in the gameplay, the overall Aesthetics, and Variety in the Acoustic Ecology.

Ico: Yorda's scream when the player is hoping to manage to overrun the approaching opponents has the potential to convey a deep emotional impact (and meaning) to the contrariety.

Aquaria:

Devil's Tuning Fork:

Guitar Hero 5:

Half-Life 2:

Patapon:

The Path:

Heavy Rain:

External Resources

Contribution of Music to the Emotional Script.
Creating emotions in games.
[pending: References on the importance of emotions in human performance.]
[pending: References on lists and systems of classification of emotions.]

References

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Engagement

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Synopsis

A phase of gameplay of explicit conflict.

Relationships

Contexts:
Emotional Script , R-A-E-D Iterations .
Peers:
Relaxation , Anticipation , Decay .
May use many, including:
Foley , Sound Effects , Music , Dialogue , Entrainment , Seeking for PC , Shout and Yell , Sonic Weapon .

Description

Episodes of Engagement are typical during the gameplay and they constitute moments of high arousal in the Emotional Script. They usually involve a dense sound composition, with participation of Foley, Sound Effects and Dialogue (from the conflict), Music (with accelerated beat), and others such as Grunts, Shout and Yell and Seeking for PC.

The participation of Music has deserved diverse approaches. For instance, in some games Music is present only in part of the cases of Engagement, possibly to avoid an acoustic overload and the competition with diegetic sounds, namely when conflicts last long.

An Engagement may be immediately followed by a short phase of Decay, which in turn would be followed by a phase of Relaxation. Depending on the gameplay the Engagement may be preceded by a phase of Anticipation. The iteration of these sequence of phases is often explored (R-A-E-D Iterations).

Examples

Heavy Rain: A case of make believe Engagement that illustrates the relevance of the accompanying Music to the Emotional Script.

Killzone 2: Extensive Engagements are arguably characteristic in this game. It is interesting to notice that some chapters use Music and others do not.

Patapon:

[show less examples...]

Tomb Raider Underworld:

The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion: Sounds of Engagement (mainly Music and eventually the NPC's expression (Seeking for PC)) replace Relaxation (mainly Music) as soon as the NPC becomes aware of the PC. Once the conflict is solved, Relaxation takes over, again.

Far Cry 2:

Ico: It is worth noticing that this one of the few examples where sounds from Ambiance are still present (or perceptible) during Engagement.

Need for Speed Undercover:

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Entrainment

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Synopsis

Changing the player’s internal rhythms through acoustic stimulation, eventually inducing emotions and behaviour.

Relationships

Contexts:
Emotional Script , Trance , R-A-E-D Iterations , Relaxation , Anticipation , Engagement , Decay , Window of Opportunity , Hurry Up! .
May use:
Heartbeat , Breath , Footsteps , Music , Rhythm Gameplay , Foley , Ambiance .

Description

Entrainment is a technique that enables tackling emotions at a physiological level, and consequently for which no conscious interpretation is required. Entrainment can be used to support the maintenance or the change of emotional states, by influencing the player to progressively move from one state of resonance into another. Sound is one prominent way to implement Entrainment, benefiting from the way humans resonate to auditory stimuli. The principles of Entrainment and resonance have been exploited by music through the ages. Entrainment techniques can also be achieved through (or built in) other sound explorations, with the ultimate goal of influencing the Emotional Script.

Specific examples of sound explorations in games that are commonly used to implement Entrainment include:

• Music: one major role of Music in a game is, precisely, to contribute to Entrainment. For instance, distinctive Music is typically designed for each of the phases Relaxation, Anticipation, Engagement and Decay. The fact that there is a great body of knowledge in this matter in close domains (as music itself, cinema, ...) influences the exploration of Music in games. Yet, it is important to acknowledge the specificity of games, to adapt and go beyond the “imported” explorations.
• Heartbeat and Breath: they are very direct approaches to Entrainment, considering that heartbeat and breath are two of the human body’s resonant systems (see below). Again, this techniques also have been long explored in the domain of music and cinema.
• Rhythm Gameplay: if the gameplay demands that the player performs an action subject to a beat it is conceivable that such player may entrains with that beat.
• Other more subtle – and possibly more complex – instances, such as rhythmic Foley (e.g., a machine, a “hacked” clock, etc...) or elements in the Ambiance are also used.

Although techniques based on Entrainment create opportunities that are less dependent on context, it should be recognized that experiencing emotions is still an individual and context dependent process. Emotions cannot be designed: a designer can only create conditions for players to reach themselves the intended emotions.

Examples

Beat Hazard:The output of the cannons is dictated by the intensity of the selected Music. As a consequence, players adapt behaviour to the variations in Music.

Far Cry 2: Notice in this experiment that the shot is followed by an activation Music that contributes to achieve an arousal state that is more consonant with the true meaning of firing a gun.

Patapon: In this game Entrainment is not only a consequence but also a requisite of the Rhythm Gameplay. The player voluntary seeks to keep in sync with the beat of the game. The exteriorization of the game’s beat in the player’s body language is a common testimony. The game’s tempo is 120 bpm (4/4).

Sonic the Hedgehog: Some power-ups change the characteristics of the Music and effectively induce a higher arousal level.

[show less examples...]

pOnd:

Additional Comments

Entrainment refers to the synchronization of resonant systems. Breath, heartbeat, and brainwaves are examples of resonant systems for which entrainment may be explored as studied in psychoacoustics. There are two types of entrainment: internal-to-internal and external-to-internal. Internal-to-internal refers to entrainment among one person’s pulse systems, namely heart, breath, and brain. For instance, when heartbeat increases so does breath rate. External-to-internal has to do with the changing of internal rhythms through external stimulation, in our case, through sound. The latter is what allows for entrainment through design; the former augments the opportunities regarding the system at which that entrainment is target.

External Resources

• First presentation of the pattern Entrainment
• On the concept and physics of entrainment
• Some demonstrations of entrainment, at a mechanical level .
• Entrainment in Sound Design in Games

References

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Failure

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Synopsis

Signalling something negative.

Relationships

Context:
Awareness , Emotional Script .
Includes the parts:
Ouch! , Imminent Death , Death .
Contrasts with:
Achievement .

Description

Sounds signalling failure are one of the top used in games, contributing to the Awareness for player’s bad decisions or poor performance, and frequently exploring the Emotional Script. They can be thought as the counterpoint of sounds of Achievement.
Since games typically include different levels of failure – calling for different levels of Awareness and with different levels of desired impact on the Emotional Script – different solutions apply. Common solutions include Sound Effects and short pieces of Music, apparently inspired in TV cartoon legacy.
Certain failure circumstances are very specific (and recurrent) including Ouch!, Imminent Death and Death. All these have particular purposes and as such call for distinct solutions.
Platform games typically include examples of the simpler, and usually most repeated, forms of Failure.

Examples

Heavy Rain:

Rhythm Zone:

Edge: Failure somehow assumes the role of Death.

[show less examples...]

Angry Birds: A case of diegetic interpretation of Failure, featuring the opponents' celebration.

Patapon:

Sonic the Hedgehog: The sound of loosing previously collected gold rings, for instance when touching enemies, has been notorious in contributing to the Signature of the game. Due to the gameplay this is a sound that repeats frequently throughout the experience.

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time:

Buzz! Brain of the World: Part of the sound composition of Failure is diegetic, including Grunts and Dialogue from the characters. In this particular game, visuals are very expressive and dominant in such circumstance.

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Foley

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Synopsis

Sounds of ongoing actions.

Relationships

Many contexts, including:
Engagement , Character Soundprint , Footsteps , Grunts , Sound Decoys , ....
Close to:
Sound Effects .
Relates to:
Acoustic Ecology .
Calls for:
Variety .
May call for:
Subtitles and Captions .

Description

Foley constitutes one of the Sound Layers of an Acoustic Ecology, along with Ambiance, Sound Effects, Music, and Dialogue. We are adopting one definition that allows differentiating Foley from Sound Effects, which constitute a common discussion. Foley consists of the set sounds that characterize an entity or event (e.g., a door closing, Footsteps, gun fire, etc.), whilst Sound Effects are sounds that are "invented" so that they may be associated to entities or aspects whose own sonic expression does not exist or is not perceptible (e.g., the sound of a laser sword). Still, it is worth mentioning that many authors/designers use both terms interchangeably.

Examples

Heavy Rain:

Red Dead Redemption:

Penumbra: Overture:

[show less examples...]

Far Cry 2:

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory:

Half-Life 2: The interaction with objects is accompanied by the respective Foley.

Portal:

Angry Birds:

Crysis:

Additional Comments

The production of the sounds of Foley is frequently achieved by recording the interaction with objects that are unrelated to the envisaged sources. Sometimes this is justified by the difficulty in recording the actual source, other times it is a matter of achieving better results in perception, considering several aspects including the transformations inherent to the recording equipment itself. One emblematic case is the making of horse footfalls by banging to halves of a coconut.

External Resources

There are many great resources on Foley production, namely regarding tricks and techniques that may be used to produce specific foley sounds, including: (Ament, 2009), (Viers, 2008), and (Farnell, 2011, particularly part IV). Additionally, some websites provide tutorials and interviews with precious hints on this matter [pending: collect them in a separate page and link to it].

References

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Foley Music

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Synopsis

Music exploring sounds of objects or actions.

Relationships

Context:
Music .
Makes use of:
Foley , Acoustic Ecology .

Description

Foley Music consists of Music that is produced by integrating processed Foley snippets from the game world.

By using Foley "voices" as instruments, Foley Music noticeably shares the identity of the game elements, competes to the global Aesthetic coherence, and augments the fitness to the Acoustic Ecology.

Foley Music also potentiates the distinctiveness of the soundtrack, which in turn reflects on the value of the game as a whole. Still, it is a challenge to compose a music that is not only interesting per se but also connects to the themes and textures in the game world.

Transformations to the Foley snippets avoid directly invoking the corresponding associations to their sources, whilst maintain aesthetic fitness. Actually this becomes mandatory if the Music would otherwise raise false positives during gameplay.

Examples

iGadget: The train has a prominent role in this game. The game's Music echoes that feature by resembling a train's Foley.

InFamous: Music was produced by incorporating actual sounds of objects aesthetically coherent with the game scenario (see testimonies in the external references).

Limbo: "Acousmatic music" incorporating the sounds from the environment [pending:[REF]].

[show less examples...]

The Path: The game's Music is sprinkled with Foley snippets of related motifs.

Additional Comments

There are sound designers who specialize in this kind of composition, as is the case of Matthew Herbert. One recent example of his involvement in this kind of endeavour is the soundtrack for Life in a Day project. Also, several authors have posted compositions based on snippets grabbed from games (e.g., via Youtube).

External Resources

In games:

• regarding the Music of InFamous and the role of Amon Tobin.

In movies:

• scene in chapter "Night Shift", in Dancer in the Dark (Lars Von Trier, 2000) 0:37:22 – song in the factory with participation of foley;
• scenes in Baraka (Ron Fricke, 1992): e.g., 0:48:16, merging the breathing of the city into music.

In music:

• Olivier Messiaen’s musical interpretations of bird songs.

Several other projects:

• Burt’s Bees – Music from Nature by Diego Stocco
;
• Matthew Herbert on Life in a Day: “I make music out of sounds”.

References

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Footsteps

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Synopsis

The sound of footsteps (extensible to any kind of being).

Relationships

Contexts:
Character Soundprint , Awareness , Signature , Emotional Script , Stealth , Entrainment .
May Relate to:
Breath , Grunts .
Makes use of:
Foley .

Description

Footsteps are among the most used patterns in sound design. They are a form of Foley that seems elemental and effective as an instrument to implement the Character’s Soundprint and in providing Awareness for the movement of both PC and NPC. They can also be used as a tool for the Emotional Script and become part of the Signature of a game.

Regarding the PC’s Footsteps, they are sometimes combined with Breath and some forms of Grunts, particularly to denote fatigue. If so, it seems important to consider them in conjunction, since they are dependent and demand some level of synchronization.

As with some other sound explorations, the sound of Footsteps is often exaggerated, particularly regarding loudness, when compared to a real life situation.

Examples

Limbo: Footsteps are major protagonist in the minimalist Acoustic Ecology.

Assassin's Creed: The sounds of horse hooves deserved a realistic approach, namely in terms of variety.

BioShock: Big Daddies’ Footsteps are part of the Signature of a game. They are identifiable at a distance. At a short distance, they are greatly accentuated by the visual effects.

[show less examples...]

Silent Hill: Within the Silence of the Ambiance, the sound of Footsteps becomes dominant. (see also the External References, on further aspects with relevance for the Emotional Script).

Papa Sangre: The sound of the Footsteps is in the core of the gameplay in Papa Sangre. The player needs to avoid that the opponents detect the PC's Footsteps. The sound of the Footsteps put yet another challenge to the player: hearing the environment while walking/running (specially when stopping is not an option).

The Graveyard: The way the game is designed almost makes the sound of every single step a sound of Achievement.

Shadow of the Colossus:

Ice Age 3: Scrat’s Footsteps are influential to the Character’s Soundprint, which constitutes a Signature of the game.

External Resources

Interviews with designers, which include commentaries on Footsteps:

• Sound of Footsteps purposefully out of sync in Silent Hill . Akira Yamaoka intentionally gives “sound ahead of the frame where action would happen”, “to induce intensity or anxiety”.
• Variety in Footsteps in Assassin’s Creed .

References

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Grunts

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Synopsis

Utterances associated to physical actions or conditions.

Relationships

Many contexts, including:
Character Soundprint , Awareness , Ouch! , Shout and Yell , Emotional Script , Signature , ....
May Relate to:
Breath , Footsteps .
Compromises with:
Stealth .
Makes use of:
Foley , Dialogue .

Description

Grunts are the second most commonly used ingredient in of the Character Soundprint, following Footsteps.

Grunts effectively convey a wide range of messages, evidencing effort, attesting that a certain type of action is potentially damaging, notifying actual damage (see Ouch! for that particular exploration), conferring aliveness to the character (that otherwise may be mute during all the game), conveying short messages (e.g., "Uh? Hmm..."), accompanying the Engagement in a fighting (battle cry, kiai, as used in real martial arts), etc. Grunts also integrate some of the solutions to implement the Awareness for proximity and alert status of opponents.

In all cases, Grunts contribute to the Awareness for some aspect of the game, in a diegetic way that maps the event into the Emotional Script.

It may also be an effective surrogate for Dialogue, avoiding more complex Voice Acting and possibly Dubbing.

Examples

Mirror's Edge: Grunts amplify the magnitude of the efforts.

Ice Age 3: Scrat's Grunts are a consistent during all game. They map into the Emotional Script the nature of each particular circumstance.

Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots:

[show less examples...]

Tomb Raider Underworld: Lara's Grunts are one of the game Signatures and they assert the difficulty to the movements she performs.

Papa Sangre: A Grunt (accompanied by a subtle Sound Effect of Failure) reveals that the PC tripped.

Ico: During Engagement, Ico's Grunts enhance the perception of his attacks.

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time: The energy put in these Grunts give a feeling of power.

Shadow of the Colossus: Although the distance to the character and all the other sounds that, objectively, would conceal the character's Grunts, they are still heard, augmenting considerably the perception of the movements and explaining the difficulty in manoeuvring.

Assassin's Creed:

Half-Life 2:

Uncharted: Drake's Fortune:

External Resources

The relation between grunting and physical performance has been discussed in other domains:

• professional tennis is one notorious case [pending: ref];
• kiai in martial arts [pending: ref].

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Heartbeat

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Synopsis

Perceptible sound of heartbeating.

Relationships

Contexts:
Character Soundprint , Awareness , Emotional Script , Entrainment , Anticipation , Imminent Death , Engagement .
Makes use of:
Foley .

Description

The sound of the Heartbeat, or some variation that more or less consciously resembles it, is a common presence in games.

The use of Heartbeat-like stimuli is rooted on the principle of Entrainment and it has a great impact in terms of the Emotional Script. It is usually associated to situations when it is required an exceptionally high level of Awareness.

Heartbeat-like stimuli may be part of Character Soundprint or may integrate the interface in a non-diegetic manner.

For Entrainment to be more effective, the intensity (loudness) of the Heartbeat starts discreetly and gradually increases to match the drama, possibly to the point of becoming the dominant sound. When the kind of Awareness that is to be signalled is related to time (as in Hurry Up!), it is common that the rhythm also increases, as that time vanishes, emulating the process of increasing Heartbeat rate of a person when facing an affliction.

Examples

InFamous: When in Imminent Death, hearing gets affected and Cole's heartbeat becomes the prevalent sound.

Dead to Rights: Retribution: When sneaking, Shadow's hearing focuses on people's acoustic expression and particularly in Heartbeat, which not only works as a beacon but also allows inferring their state of alertness.

Heavy Rain: The sound of the Heartbeat adds meaning to the already very emotional facial expression.

[show less examples...]

Limbo: A background pulse that resembles the Heartbeat augments the drama.

Fable III [SPOILER VIDEO]: The Heartbeat leaves no doubt that the player has a dramatic decision in hands.

Buzz!: Brain of the World:

Deadly Premonition:

The Path:

Additional Comments

In the field of music, the emotional effect of tempo relative to the Heartbeat has long been explored [pending ref].

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Helper Voice

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Synopsis

Conveying guidance through the voice of disembodied or remote entities.

Relationships

Context:
Awareness .
May relate to:
Narrative , Recordings , Radio .
Differs from:
Narrator .
Makes use of:
Dialogue .

Description

One way to provide the player with aid while playing, regarding the gameplay but also dynamic notifications (Awareness for a critical state, for instance), is to design a Helper Voice who provides such information through Dialogue in a diegetic way.

Helper Voice may indirectly contribute with pieces of Narrative but it is different from Narrator. While Helper Voice provides information about the gameplay, i.e. about what to do or how to do it, the Narrator tells the story of the game.

The Helper Voice is sometimes "a voice from above", frequently conveyed by a reverberated Dialogue and possibly some additional Sound Effects that approximate it from the archetype of the voice of fantastic or divine entities.

Yet, perhaps the most commonly designed solution for the Helper Voice is to have a NPC in a remote location providing information over a communicator. The same channel and character is often used to provide Narrative (in which case such character also behaves as Narrator).

Examples

Tomb Raider Legend:

Shadow of the Colossus: A voice from above explains the strategy to defeat a particular boss. In case the player is not able to progress the voice repeats after a while.

Portal:

Uncharted: Drake's Fortune:

[show less examples...]

Assassin's Creed: The Animus ("a projector which renders genetic memories") serves gameplay hints while loading levels.

Half-Life 2: Both the Radio emission (semantically directed to the NPC) and the NPC provide helpful information.

Papa Sangre: In the beginning of the game, "a fluttery watery thing" presents itself as someone the player cannot see but who is there to help.

Halo: Reach:

Commandos BCD:

Crysis:

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Hurry Up!

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Synopsis

Contributing for the sense of urge in completing something.

Relationships

Context:
Emotional Script , Awareness , Window of Opportunity .
May relate to:
Imminent Death .
Often uses:
Sound Effects , Music , Entrainment .

Description

The urge to complete some goal is usually supported by sound. Considering that time is the dimension that needs to be emphasized in these scenarios, common solutions involve augmenting the perception of time ticking or accelerating some sort of pulse, in a tentative to induce arousal through Entrainment. Intense and accelerated Music is also a common ingredient. Hurry Up! should contribute to the Emotional Script.

Hurry Up! is closely related to Window of Opportunity in the sense that they both call for urgent acting. Yet they fit different gameplay situations. Whilst a Window of Opportunity may or may not be explored (it may even concur with a major goal), the case in Hurry Up! implies timely completing the goal to succeed.

It is common that the pulses used during Hurry Up! to elicit the sense of urge through Entrainment resemble the Heartbeat.

Examples

Far Cry 2: Hurry Up! is found in association with Imminent Death. When facing such situation, the PC has a limited amount of time to perform some self-healing action. In this case the Heartbeat (along with visual cues) is used to signal the emergency.

Katamari Forever: Quests are explicitly time based and consist of collecting as much items as possible. When closer to the given time an alarm-like Sound Effect augments the Awareness for the pertinence of making the best out of the remaining time.

Assassin's Creed 2: Ezio has to activate a lever to open a remote door through which he will have to pass in order to proceed. The fact that a ticking sound starts to be heard is easily recognizable as an indicator that that door will be open only for a limited amount of time.

Tomb Raider Underworld: The astonishing Foley of the scenario falling apart, a very loud alarm, the Dialogue from a repeating voiced message, and a overwhelming Music, are elements of a composition that leads the player to urge to the exit. Interestingly enough, [SHOW SPOILER] this is not an actual time dependent quest [pending: double check this]; that is to say, nothing would happen if the player did not urge – which even puts more merit on sound design, that provides such illusion .

[show less examples...]

Buzz! Brain of the World: Timed answers are signalled by an Heartbeat with increasing beating.

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Identification

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Synopsis

Promoting the recognition of entities through their distinctive soundprints.

Relationships

Context:
Awareness .
May call for:
Signature , Character Soundprint , Beacon Locator , Variety , Acoustic Ecology .
Should not compromise:
Variety .

Description

Identification refers to the ability to associate soundprints with their source entities – be they NPC, resources, or other objects in the world.
In the case of characters, Identification consists of the perception of their Character Soundprint.
Identification potentiates accurate behaviour, reduces ambiguities and sets the context that in turn allows completing their representation.

In terms of gameplay, the kind of Awareness provided by Identification is especially relevant when in absence of visual contact with the emitting source.
Beacon Locators constitute one further exploration that exaggerates the acoustic presence of an entity to make it more noticed and localizable.
In games that support Stealth behaviour or that are open-world enough to provide alternative roaming, Identification of NPC is instrumental.

In all cases, the adoption of Signature soundprints, by definition, contributes to Identification and allows refined reaction. For instance, if different types of opponents have distinctive Chitchat or Foley, the player can readily draw up the appropriate weapons, before eye contact.

The issue of Variety, which concerns the perception of repetition, becomes more complex when different entities are not all treated alike, as it is the case implied by Identification. In this case Variety applies not only among the whole set of entities but also for each particular kind of entity.

The design of the sounds that will eventually turn a identity identifiable calls for the appreciation of the Acoustic Ecology of the game, of which such new sounds will eventually become part of.

Examples

Silent Hill: The radio that Harry carries with him emits a static interference that allows identifying nearby creatures.

BioShock: Big Daddies' Character Soundprint allows their Identification before Eye Contact. This is important because unlike many other NPC in the game, the player wants to find them. Prompt Identification of the specific type of enemy is crucial in this game due to the need to timely readying the proper weapons. This is possible thanks to their Signatures. For instance Spider Slicers are very quick, attack from the roof, and only a certain characteristic sound allows spotting them before actual eye contact.

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time: These bats make a sound that allows acknowledging that they are close by.

[show less examples...]

The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion: Foes are usually clearly audible which is relevant in terms of exploration of the spaces.

inFamous: Harmful NPC make themselves announce.

Crysis: In this circumstance the soldiers' talk avoids that the PC unwillingly exposes himself and runs in a direct confrontation. Also, the talk tells beforehand that there is more than one soldier.

Halo: Reach: A case when the Relaxation following an apparently solved Engagement is interrupted by the Identification of a powerful opponent's Character Soundprint.

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Imminent Death

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Synopsis

Urging a change of behaviour to avoid death.

Relationships

Context:
Failure , Awareness , Emotional Script , Window of Opportunity .
Peers:
Death , Ouch! .
May relate to:
Hurry Up! .
May use:
Heartbeat , Grunts , Affected Hearing , Foley , Sound Effects , Dialogue .

Description

Many games implement Death through decrements in health as a result of repeated injury. Recovery may depend on self-administering some kind of remedy and/or spending time enough without taking damage. Moreover, recovery often comes at a cost, so it is inevitable to manage some level of injury. The problem is that players may lack the Awareness for imminence of Death and unwittingly (and avoidably) let the PC die.

Providing clear indicators of Imminent Death promotes Awareness for the need to adopt a behaviour that reverses the evolution towards Death. Furthermore, both health and death are concepts with profound semantics and prominent association to emotions and values. That, at least, calls for a meaningful signalling (Emotional Script).

Imminent Death is particularly relevant in the heat of an Engagement when the player may be deeply focused in other aspects of the conflict – timing, moves, tool selection, etc. – and attention is diverted from less evident health indicators.

Diegetic interpretations of Imminent Death are effective because they allow a direct understanding of the situation and they avoid the need to be attentive to some health monitor. Approaches include using the sound of the Heartbeat, which constitutes an evocative and powerful indication of risk, particularly when it becomes the dominant sound. Uneasy Breath or even Grunts are also commonly used.

Another diegetic approach is suggesting body collapse through the loss of basic perception. Namely, affecting global sound (Affected Hearing) as if senses became severely compromised is very indicative of the need to find a remediation for that condition. Moreover, the fact that the player no longer hears the diegetic world not only helps to understand how serious the case is but also, more relevantly, redirects the player's focus from the Engagement to the search for a remediation to the character’s health.

Examples

Uncharted 2: Among Thieves: Strong Heartbeat accompanies the monochrome image and blood depiction.

InFamous: In addition to blood depiction on top of the monochromatic vision, the Affected Hearing makes it difficult to perceive the surrounding sounds, and a very strong Heartbeat sound (as in the inner ears) dominates the senses. The remedy for Cole is to get away from the fight, get some cover until he recovers and eventually get back to the unfinished business.

Half-Life 2: The "hazard suit" voice warns (Dialogue): "Vital signs critical"/"Seek medical attention" (health 25 or below) or "Emergency! User death imminent"/"Seek medical attention" (health 9 or below).

[show less examples...]

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time: A very clear alarm sound signals Imminent Death.

Halo: Reach: A very bass sound of Heartbeat (almost inaudible when using regular speakers) accompanies the critical health state.

Shadow of the Colossus:

External Resources

http://half-life.wikia.com/wiki/HEV_Suit

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In-game Feedback

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Synopsis

Providing indicators on the player's acoustic performance.

Relationships

Contexts:
Sound Input , Rhythm Gameplay , Pitch Gameplay , Awareness , Emotional Script .
Relates to:
Levelled Performance .

Description

Gameplay demanding Sound Input, as in the case of Pitch Gameplay, or requiring some kind of auditory performance such as Rhythm Gameplay, may introduce unfamiliar challenges to players.

One interesting approach to deal with this is to provide in-game (diegetic) feedback and assistance. This not only presents a contextualized way to deliver Awareness to players, regarding their actions, but can also play an important role in terms of the game’s Emotional Script.

In some examples, this feedback promotes positive emotions, which may contribute to: balancing the distress of unachievement; favouring cognition by maintaining the player in a positive mood [pending:[REF]]; and, providing an additional source of entertainment.

A complementary way to tackle complexity is to let the players evolve their sound performance through stages of Levelled Performance, similarly as it is commonly done with other gameplay aspects.

Examples

pOnd: The coughing is a clear indicator that the duration of the inbreathing is relevant.

SingStar Vol.3:

Guitar Hero World Tour:

Spore:

[show less examples...]

Rhythm Paradise:

Patapon:

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time:

Tom Clancy's EndWar: In-game reactions to voice commands (Sound Input), including the inability to understand or execute an order.

Papa Sangre:

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Levelled Performance

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Synopsis

The progressive sophistication of sound related performative actions.

Relationships

Context:
Sound Input , Rhythm Gameplay , Pitch Gameplay , Narrative .
Relates to:
In-game Feedback .

Description

Developing the PC's abilities step-by-step is a common practice in games. It allows the adaptation to a complex set of rules and/or controls, in a methodical way. In that sense this pattern does not add novelty to the "general approach". Still, sound designers have to ponder the need for such levelling, and eventually to design it considering the specificities of the sound explorations that they propose.

Levelled Performance can also serve the goal of managing the players' interest in the game by extending the delivery of novelty along the experience. Again, this is not particular to sound design, but it is something sound designers may also wish/need to consider.

Examples

Aquaria: Songs that allow specific abilities are learnt one at a time along the game.

Patapon: Songs and, later, Miracles that trigger specific effects, are progressively made available along the game.

Guitar Hero World Tour: Being able to select difficulty levels (here "easy", "medium", "hard", "expert") is a solution that extends to sound-related aspects of performance.

[show less examples...]

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time: Songs are learnt one at a time along the game, as set by the Narrative.

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Make Sound not War

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Synopsis

Exploring sound to create alternatives to conflict.

Relationships

Context:
Consequent Sound , Emotional Script .
Relates to:
Engagement .
Includes:
Sing to Act , Sound Decoys .
Contrasts with:
Sonic Weapon .
May imply:
Sound Input .

Description

In a moment when so many games tend towards belligerent narratives, it is relevant to think of audio as a creativity opportunity, also to come up with ideas that offer alternatives to those types of conflict.

Examples

Spore: Being under attack, instead of fighting back, an herbivore PC can sing the "Siren Song" to settle down an attacking creature. In the sequence, it is even possible to socialize with that creature’s species.

Mini Ninjas: Suzume plays the flute in order to enchant enemies as an alternative to fight them.

Aquaria: Removing the shell off this creature – by singing the "Bind Song" – renders it harmless.

[show less examples...]

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time: the Big Boss of the Gorons is "defeated" not by force but by getting pleased with the playing of a particular song. This circumstance provides an interesting twist in the Emotional Script.

LocoRoco: LocoRoco offers a rich and delightful experience through the exploration of sound with no conflict other than avoiding to be bitten by the Moja.

Additional Comments

• Nature provides many insightful examples of the use of sound to address conflicts, instead of actual physical confrontation, namely through the evaluation of the other party’s potential. The ability to perform sound – loud, long, accurate, ... – is many times an indicator of potential – health, size, maturity, ... Examples include: passerine birds singing to dispute territory, dogs barking, etc.

[pending: references to some interesting resources in this matter. e.g.,: David Attenborough "the winner is the one who sings the longest" (something like that)].

External Resources

• Spore's Siren Song http://spore.wikia.com/wiki/Siren_Song
• Spore's Soothing Song http://spore.wikia.com/wiki/Soothing_Song
• Baraka 12:29 (chapter 4): ancient rituals of confrontation through vocalizations

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Menus

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Synopsis

Sounds in game menus.

Relationships

Peers:
Title Screens , Cutscenes .
Often uses:
Music , Contextual Music , Sound Effects .
May use:
Foley .

Description

The Menus constitute one of the distinct components of sound design in games, along with the introductory Title Screens, the Cutscenes, and – the more “extensive” component – sound occurring during gameplay.

Sound in Menus augments players’ Awareness for their actions. Frequently it is possible to perceive at least three kinds of semantics in Menus sounds: navigation (‘neutral’ sounds), acceptance (‘positive’ sounds), and refusal (‘negative’ sounds).

Considering that moving through items in menus is an abstract action, Sound Effects are the common solution. Yet, in order to augment the closeness between Menu sounds and game world sounds, some menus integrate elements of Foley from the gameplay.

Music is also common presence in menus. Usually that is “the music of the game” (or the “soundtrack” if it applies) but it can also change along time, e.g., according to the level being played (Contextual Music).

Examples

Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots: Sounds of gun handling and firing are adopted.

Red Dead Redemption: Sounds of gun handling and firing are used to deliver feedback to selections and provide some playfulness to the navigation.

Uncharted: Drake's Fortune: The Aesthetics of the sounds is noticeably coherent with the game experience.

Half-Life 2: When accessing the Menus, the Ambiance from gameplay continues to be heard, which contributes to maintain the player connected to the game world.

Tetris:

[show less examples...]

Flower: In the beginning of the game, the (Contextual) Music has a sad tone, accompanying a dark Ambiance. As the player completes levels they become lively and rewarding. Such evolution is in consonance with the Emotional Script of the game.

BioShock: The sounds when selecting the entries invite the user to play with the menu. They are also coherent it the game’s Aesthetics.

The Path:

Heavy Rain:

Guitar Hero 5:

LocoRoco:

Braid:

Chime:

The Binding of Isaac:

Rez HD:

Katamari Forever: The sounds contribute to extend the gameplay into the menu.

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Music

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Synopsis

All kinds of music heard during the game.

Relationships

Many contexts, including:
Entrainment , Relaxation , Anticipation , Engagement , Decay , Emotional Script , Trance , Narrative , Window of Opportunity , Diegetic Music , Contextual Music , Musical Outcome , Signature , ....
Relates to:
Acoustic Ecology .
Calls for:
Variety .

Description

Music is the most widely used of the Sound Layers in game design. That is even more noticeable in not so recent games, when, due to technical limitations and less sophistication in game development, there was less investment in other layers (Ambiance, Foley, Sound Effects, Dialogue). Modern complex games, tend to fit Music in an involving Acoustic Ecology sometimes even being part of game world itself (Diegetic Music). Still, the extent of the explorations is highly dependent on the characteristics of the game.

Music is a major tool in the design of all the typical phases of gameplay: Relaxation, Anticipation, Engagement and Decay.

It is argued that the use of Music in games is still strongly influenced by the practice in cinema and by the fact that many sound designers work and were educated in that industry [pending: ref]. There is also extensive discussion about the limitations of cinema-like Music in games, considering differences such as interactivity, variable duration of scenes, possible long periods of exposition (that demand Variety), potential unpredictability, etc. [pending:e.g., ref].

Music, as field, has historically developed and refined many techniques that have proven to tackle human emotions. Examples are the use of Entrainment to influence the Emotional Script or reach Trance, by progressively changing tempo and dynamics.

Some games exhibit Contextual Music, depending on the space in the game world and/or game level and/or particular circumstances of the gameplay including Windows of Opportunity.

Some game genres focus on Music, making it part of the gameplay, either in terms of performance (Rhythm Gameplay, Pitch Gameplay, Sing to Act) or in terms of the output of the player's actions (Musical Outcome).

Examples

Portal: The song "Still Alive" performed by GLaDOS's Voice Actor has been highly praised. The song is heard in the end of the game, though a "peppy" instrumental version can be heard during the gameplay in scattered Radios. The lyrics contain aspects contributing (or adding) to the Narrative.

Everyday Shooter:

LocoRoco:

[show less examples...]

Tomb Raider Underworld:

Uncharted 2: Among Thieves:

The Path:

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory:

Half-Life 2: Music prepares and supports the haste of a fight.

Deadly Premonition:

Ice Age 3:

The Misadventures of P.B. Winterbottom:

Halo: Reach:

Additional Comments

[pending: add links to the specificities of Music in games, namely when compared to film music]




References

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Musical Outcome

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Synopsis

Music generated as a by-product of in-game actions.

Relationships

Context:
Emotional Script .
May relate to:
Contextual Music , Diegetic Music .
Makes use of:
Music .

Description

Musical Outcome refers to the generation of sounds, which are collectively perceived as Music, as a collateral effect of the players'/PC's actions.

This exploration differs from playing some sort of instrument in the game. Musical Outcome assumes that the player executes non-musical actions and that the game reacts musically to them.

The Musical Outcome may be combined with a background Music to create a global dynamic composition.

Examples

Chime:

Flower:

Rez HD:

[show less examples...]

Everyday Shooter:

Bit Trip Beat:

Peggle:

The Misadventures of P.B. Winterbottom:

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Narrative

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Synopsis

The contributions of sound to unfold the game's story.

Relationships

Relates to:
Emotional Script .
May use many, including:
Dialogue , Cutscenes , Narrator , Thoughts , Recordings , Radio , Eavesdropping , Contextual Music , Levelled Performance .

Description

Narrative is mostly conveyed through Dialogue. Yet it may reach the player/PC through a combination of different explorations which include a Narrator, Cutscenes, scattered and collectible Recordings, Radios, conversations with NPC during gameplay (Dialogue), or even by Eavesdropping NPC.

Examples

Flower:

Silent Hill:

BioShock:

[show less examples...]

Aquaria:

Demon's Souls:

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory:

Papa Sangre:

Ecco the Dolphin: The PC addresses the NPC (Address Others) so that they tell pieces of the story (and other information).

External Resources

(Sonnenschein, 2001, Ch. 8: Sound and Narrative)

References

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Narrator

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Synopsis

Resorting to an actual narrator to convey the narrative.

Relationships

Context:
Narrative .
Differs from:
Helper Voice .
Makes use of:
Dialogue .

Description

One possible way to convey the game's Narrative is to include a Narrator, in the literary and filmic sense. Options for the behaviour of the Narrator resemble those from film practice.

It is worth noting that, although Narrator and Helper Voice occasionally share form, they address distinct explorations.

Examples

Call of Duty: World at War: Cutscenes between levels are narrated.

Max Payne: The PC acts as Narrator, in a filmic fashion.

Sam & Max 301: The Penal Zone: A character explicitly plays the role of Narrator (notice the inscription in his desk).

Commandos BCD: Story is narrated in a literary fashion.

[show less examples...]

Dead to Rights: Retribution: The PC himself narrates the story (actually, he is telling it to a NPC).

Aquaria:

Papa Sangre:

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No Can Do

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Synopsis

Signalling something impossible.

Relationships

Context:
Awareness .
Close to:
Failure .
Makes use of:
Sound Effects , Foley , Dialogue .

Description

The interaction between the PC/player and the game world implies experimentation, at least until the rules of the game world are well understood. To signal impossible actions, designers frequently resort to sound.

If we think of a continuum between sounds of Achievement and sounds of Failure, sounds of No Can Do “feel” somewhere between a neutral degree of Awareness and tending towards Failure, although they don’t get close enough to the latter to the point of being similar. A No Can Do sound is mostly informative; it does not reflect a judgement on the action of the player – although it informs about something that cannot be done and, as such, that is not interesting repeating.

Solutions for No Can Do may be diegetic or non-diegetic. In the former case, the PC usually expresses itself the impossibility through a minimal Dialogue, which is sometimes accompanied by the Foley of the failing interaction. In the latter case it is common to use a Sound Effect directed to the player.

Examples

Assassin's Creed 2:

Thief III: Deadly Shadows: When trying to conceal a body in a place that cannot fit it, Garrett emits a “uh-uh”. No accompanying visual cue exists, in this case.

Half-Life 2: When an item cannot be used, a Sound Effect is used. Unless captions are activated this is the only cue the player receives [pending: double check this].

[show less examples...]

LocoRoco:

Chime:

Wolfenstein 3-D:

Ico:

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Noise

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Synopsis

The purposeful use of noise.

Relationships

Contexts:
Aesthetics , Acoustic Ecology , Emotional Script , Awareness .
Often uses:
Ambiance , Foley .

Description

Noise may be used in disparate circumstances, ranging from Ambiance to part of the gameplay. Usually, it is specifically intended to shape the Emotional Script.

"Noise" does not have to be actual noise. It may consist of sound that due to its acoustic properties is perceived as such.

Examples

iGadget:

Limbo: Limbo presents us an example of the use of Noise as part of the Ambiance [pending:[REF]]. In this case, noise is constant and soft.

Silent Hill: In the Silent Hill series, the PC carries a Radio that emits a static Noise when there are enemies in the surroundings, contributing to Awareness, which is a relevant element of gameplay.

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Flower: Noise as part of the starting point for the unfolding of the Emotional Script along the experience, as explored in the game's Menus. In the beginning of the game the Menu presents an Acoustic Ecology (predominantly Ambiance) allusive to a emotionally negative environment. As the game progresses, it becomes more positive and eventually it becomes highly rewarding.

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory: The level of Noise as part of the gameplay, namely in Stealth operations. Here, Noise is understood as the loudness of the Ambiance and of the PC's actions. If the PC makes more Noise than its surroundings he is heard by the opponents. The HUD includes an aural monitor that allows comparing both levels of Noise.

Silent Hill Homecoming:

The Path:

External Resources

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Chaos Theory Wikia Gaming

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Ouch!

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Synopsis

Signalling a painful or damaging interaction.

Relationships

Contexts:
Failure , Awareness , Emotional Script .
Peers:
Imminent Death , Death .
May use:
Grunts .

Description

Many games demand managing the health of characters. An effective way to signal interactions resulting in damage to the characters' status is to allow themselves to diegetically express such events.

Sounds associated to Ouch! have an utilitarian role of making the player aware for the negative consequences of a particular option or circumstance. Yet, their role goes beyond the mere Awareness for a Failure condition, potentiating more meaningful interpretations and contributions to the Emotional Script.

In some ways, Ouch! announces that repeating or not ceasing to meet the damaging condition will eventually lead to Death.

Ouch! is frequently expressed through Grunts, although that depends on the characteristics of the Character's Soundprint.

Examples

Uncharted: Drake's Fortune:

Spore Origins:

Assassin's Creed:

[show less examples...]

FlOw: A less evident representation of "pain", which is coherent with the Character's Soundprint and with the game's Acoustic Ecology.

Patapon:

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory:

Half-Life 2:

Aquaria:

Crysis:

Dead to Rights:

Halo: Reach:

The Binding of Isaac:

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Pitch Gameplay

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Synopsis

Exploring the tonal accuracy of the player’s voiced input.

Relationships

Makes use of:
Sound Input .
Often uses:
In-game Feedback , Sound Visualization , Levelled Performance .

Description

Some games focus on the player's ability to provide an input whose pitch matches that of a pre-defined sound piece such as a song. This is typically done through the input of voice, with the player singing the lyrics of a selected song. Since pitch is the acoustic parameter being considered, the exact wording of the player's input is usually secondary to the performance.

Examples

Guitar Hero World Tour:

Disney Sing It: Family Hits:

SingStar Vol.3:

[show less examples...]

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R-A-E-D Iterations

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Synopsis

Iterations of the sequence: Relaxation → Anticipation → Engagement → Decay.

Relationships

Context:
Emotional Script .
Parts:
Relaxation , Anticipation , Engagement , Decay .
Makes use of:
Entrainment .

Description

Relaxation, Anticipation, Engagement, and Decay can be used in an iterated sequence, such as: ...→Relaxation→Anticipation→Engagement→Decay→Relaxation→Anticipation→Engagement→Decay→Relaxation→...
Due to the difficulties in designing and coding the intelligence for the phase of Anticipation, the following simpler version is more common: ...→Relaxation→Engagement→Decay→Relaxation→Engagement→Decay→Relaxation→...

Techniques involving Entrainment play an important role in the design of these phases and in the transitions between them.

Examples

Need for Speed: Undercover: In these example the sequence "Relaxation → Engagement → Decay" is perceptible.

Far Cry 2: In this game it is notorious the use of the complete sequence with the four phases. Naturally, from the phase of Anticipation it is possible to get back to Relaxation, if Engagement is avoided.

Papa Sangre: A three-phase sequence is perceptible. What is more, if we opt to interpret that there is never exactly an Engagement – in this game the actual Engagement is equal to Death – but instead a possible second degree of Anticipation (of getting caught, once spotted and if not able to outrun the pursuer), then the sequence is more like: "... → Relaxation → Anticipation → Decay → Relaxation → Anticipation → Decay → Relaxation → ...".

The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion: A simpler but very noticeable two-phase sequence: "... → Relaxation → Engagement → Relaxation → ...". Basically, Relaxation is substituted by Engagement while a conflict is happening.

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Revisions

This is one of the patterns included in our seminal collection but it was presented with another name: "Entrainment". Meanwhile we realized three things:

• In this pattern, entrainment is the "means", not the solution. Considering that the name of a pattern should reflect the solution (not the means), "Entrainment" was not adequate name.
• We are not aware of any explicit reference to the iteration of phases this pattern addresses, so we don’t know of a name that is already used to express it. Consequently we had to define it ourselves ("R-A-E-D Iterations" as it stands now), which in this particular circumstance was a challenge that still remains open.
• Entrainment is indeed a pattern – another pattern. (A pattern that this one makes use of.)

External Resources

Emblematic examples of this sequence in movie:

• the scene known as “Apologize to my mule” in A Fistful of Dollars.

References

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Radio

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Synopsis

Actual radio receivers with relevant emission.

Relationships

Contexts:
Narrative , Helper Voice , Awareness , Diegetic Music .
May relate to:
Sound Suppressing , Stealth .
Relates to:
Recordings .

Description

Radio devices present disparate solutions to offer audio stimuli inside the game world (i.e., in a diegetic way).

It is fairly common to come across Radios in open-world games. Clearly, the inclusion of these objects in the game world is a sound design decision.

Radios may only convey Diegetic Music but many times they serve the Narrative, or act as Helper Voice by providing information relevant to the gameplay. There are also cases of Radios playing a role during Stealth performance.

Radios are related but different from Recordings. The latter usually presents scattered and anachronical pieces of past testimonies, and serves distinct purposes.

Examples

Commandos BCD:A radio-like device being used as a Sound Decoy.

Portal: Several Radios, found along the way, play this "peppy" instrumental version of a song that will have an important role, later in the game.

Half-Life 2: A Radio broadcasting information.

Silent Hill: In this game the Radio is relevant not because of a regular emission it might receive but because it emits noise when enemies are nearby (Echolocation).

[show less examples...]

Dead to Rights: Retribution: The news contribute with a bit of Narrative.

Tomb Raider Legend: Lara is wearing a communicator (Helper Voice). The opponent is also using a walkie-talkie (Unaware NPC).

Grand Theft Auto IV: The Radio contributes in a naturalist manner with Music (Diegetic Music) that completes the Acoustic Ecology. Cars are also equipped with Radio and it is possible to change station.

Far Cry 2: A Radio tuned in the local radio station is a common finding (Diegetic Music and some voiced pieces). There are even missions where the Radio emission is central. The radio station is explicitly presented by a taxi driver in an initial Cutscene.

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory: In this case the Radio emission competes for the attention during Stealth action. Radios can be turned off or destroyed.

Crysis:

Additional Comments

Radio in Silent Hill, Silent Hill Wiki.
In Silent Hill: Homecoming (a newer instalment in the series) the radio is actually a radio transceiver (walkie-talkie) [1].

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Recordings

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Synopsis

Recorded dialogue, frequently scattered through the game world.

Relationships

Context:
Narrative .
Possibly with:
Beacon Locator .
May relate to:
Helper Voice , Radio .
Makes use of:
Dialogue .

Description

Recordings offer pieces of Narrative in the format of recorded Dialogue.

It is fairly common that Recordings are found as collectibles scattered through the game world, though isolated cases are also common.

Some explorations, such as hand written tickets that are read when found, are somehow semantically comparable.

Examples

BioShock: Individual testimonies, in the form of personal audio diaries, offer different perspectives of life in the advent of the situation in stake.

InFamous: Communications, in the form of collectible "dead drops", explain the events that led to the state of the game world as it is.

Silent Hill Homecoming: An accidental recording that captured a moment, that contributes to the Narrative. The tape and the recorder were found in different locations.

[show less examples...]

Far Cry 2: Collectible pieces of interviews that help to know the main NPC.

Dead to Rights:

Heavy Rain: A handwritten note, introducing new elements in the Narrative, which is read out aloud using the voice of the character who wrote it.

Revisions

Introduced as Audio Logs (in version 1.0)

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Relaxation

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Synopsis

A phase of gameplay promoting a restful state of mind.

Relationships

Contexts:
Emotional Script , R-A-E-D Iterations .
Peers:
Anticipation , Engagement , Decay .
Often uses:
Ambiance , Music , Entrainment .

Description

Relaxation is one typical phase of the Emotional Script during gameplay. It is used both alone and integrated in an iterated sequence that can also involve some or all of the phases of Anticipation, Engagement, and Decay (the R-A-E-D Iterations).

Even when a game does not have Relaxation as its prevalent emotional goal, the phases of Relaxation are instrumental to build the emotional contrast that will emphasize the value of following phases of Anticipation or Engagement. This is particularly relevant, considering that the player's experience is mostly dependent on the interpretation of the game's Emotional Script.

For historical reasons, Music is the most explored means to implement Relaxation. Yet, other sound explorations, namely those that, in turn, resort to Entrainment techniques, have been effectively used, too. Ambiance is also commonly explored in association with Relaxation, usually portraying an acoustic environment that is pleasing and not too demanding in terms of attention (which also means not too overloaded with "pleasing" elements).

The Aesthetic qualities of the acoustic composition may also be relevant to Relaxation. Qualities that may be considered positive (e.g., "pleasing") are more prone to induce relaxation that those that may be perceived as negative. Nevertheless, it may also be argued that an excessive (positive) appreciation for the composition, per se, may be counterproductive. To start with, because it can mean an increased level of arousal that would no longer be perceived as Relaxation; but also because such appreciation may divert the player from the immersion in the game world to an appreciation of the game product itself (which may counter the design intent).

Examples

The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion:

pOnd:

Halo: Reach:

[show less examples...]

Flower:

Far Cry 2:

Additional Comments

Sound has been historically explored as a tool to induce and sustain states of mind, including Relaxation. At a fundamental level the idea is to create a resonance between the stimuli and the listener's inner psychophysiological systems through some Entrainment process, in a state that matches the intended emotional state. In the field of Music this has been done and documented for ages. Cinema also has adopted and adapted the use of Music to lead the listener to a certain state of mind. In turn, the game industry has considered techniques both from film practice and Music, not forgetting the particularities of the media, which open new opportunities and call for specific approaches to Music.

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Revelation

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Synopsis

Expressing an encounter with something special.

Relationships

Context:
Emotional Script , Awareness .
Differs from:
Achievement .

Description

While exploring the game world, the player encounters many entities with disparate value (objects, places, characters, events, ...). Sound is instrumental to reveal to the player the extraordinary importance of a particular finding. Even when there are visual clues that would be enough to realize such importance, sound still has the potential to enlarge the episode's Emotional Script.

Sometimes, and particularly in linear games, Revelation resembles an Achievement. And, actually, sometimes it even happens that an Achievement immediately follows a Revelation. Yet, the two concepts are distinct – whilst Achievement is meant to reward, Revelation is meant to enlarge the perception of a finding.

Examples

Aquaria: The finding of a treasure is "explained" and emphasized by a sound of Revelation. (In this instance, it is immediately followed by an Achievement.)

Tomb Raider Underworld: In this case the Music plays a major role in revealing the magnificence of the site just discovered, and invites to take some time appreciating it.

Crysis:

[show less examples...]

Patapon:

Half-Life 2:

Ico:

Uncharted: Drake's Fortune:

External Resources

Examples of Revelation sounds from movies:

• Monty Python and the Holy Grail, in chapter "The Tale of Sir Galahad" (about 0:00:35), when encountering Castle Anthrax.

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Rhythm Gameplay

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Synopsis

Acting in sync with a rhythm.

Relationships

Contexts:
Consequent Sound , Entrainment .
May call for:
Sound Visualization , Sound Input , In-game Feedback , Levelled Performance .

Description

In certain games, particularly in those adopting Rhythm Gameplay, setting or reacting to the beat is inherent to the gameplay.

Examples

Rhythm Zone:

Rhythm Paradise:

Tap Tap Revenge 3:

[show less examples...]

Patapon:

Guitar Hero 5:

Additional Comments

"Rhythm gameplay can still evolve"

Revisions

Introduced as Play the Beat (in version 1.0)

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Say that Again

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Synopsis

Allowing the PC/player to request to hear again.

Relationships

Context:
Dialogue .
May call for:
Address Others , Variety .
Makes use of:
Dialogue .

Description

Several circumstances may interfere with the player’s ability to grasp the meaning of a certain auditory message, particularly when the stimuli requires interpretation, as is the case of Dialogue. Those include:

• improperly adjusted sound volume;
• transient diversion of player’s attention;
• noise (in the player’s environment);
• difficulties in understanding the game’s native language;
• resuming an interrupted session.

One typical instance of this scenario is when the person who is playing asks "What did he say?!" (referring to a character in the game). This problem may impair the experience.

Some games use mechanisms that allow the player to request the repetition of the message. Some solutions are diegetic (e.g., the PC addresses the NPC with that purpose – analogous to a real-life situation), others require the player to access a certain functionality in the interface (e.g., replaying a message listed in an inventory). The repetition may consist of strictly replaying the message or in presenting an equivalent message with the same meaning.

Repetition requires that the need for Variety is pondered.

Examples

Half-Life 2: Insisting on interacting with a character triggers equivalent messages.

The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion: Answers in the conversation menu can be replayed.

BioShock: Radio messages (Helper Voice) and collected audio diaries (Recordings) can be replayed through the menu.

[show less examples...]

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Seeking for PC

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Synopsis

NPC’s manifestations of active chasing of the PC.

Relationships

Contexts:
Awareness , Engagement , Anticipation .
May use:
Dialogue , Shout and Yell , Grunts .
May relate to:
Stealth , Character Soundprint , Sound Decoys .
Contrasts with:
Unaware NPC , Suspicious NPC .

Description

It may be interesting that the player perceives when the NPC are aware and committed to find the PC, ready for actual Engagement. Such state applies between the moment when some NPC spots the PC and the moment when the matter is somehow solved.

While Seeking for PC, Dialogue-capable NPC usually voice their hostile intentions towards the PC (a case of Shout and Yell). Yet, other non-linguistic behaviours that reveal NPC "activation" can also be effective in expressing that kind of attitude.

Seeking for PC is both informative (a matter of Awareness) and contributory to the Emotional Script.

Other possible stages of Awareness of (hostile) NPC behaviour that are commonly represented through acoustic expressions are Unaware NPC (while the NPC are not aware of the PC's presence) and Suspicious NPC (should the NPC have reason to investigate the PC's presence).

Examples

Assassin's Creed:

BioShock:

The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion:

[show less examples...]

Far Cry 2:

Commandos BCD:

Crysis:

Thief III: Deadly Shadows:

Papa Sangre:

Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots:

Portal:

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Shout and Yell

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Synopsis

Loud manifestations of hostility.

Relationships

Contexts:
Awareness , Engagement , Emotional Script , Character Soundprint , Seeking for PC .
Makes use of:
Dialogue , Grunts .

Description

Shout and Yell refers to loud expressions, either Grunts or Dialogue-like, which a character emits with the evident purpose of messaging an hostile attitude towards others (usually NPC towards the PC, but not necessarily).

A particular (an much less common) exploration of Shout and Yell is when it is integrated in the gameplay in association with the Sound Input.

Examples

Wolfenstein 3-D: The use of Shout and Yell in this game is emblematic. It is this game's most well known Signature.

Mini Ninjas: Shout and Yell fits well within the martial arts.

InFamous:

[show less examples...]

Red Dead Redemption: Non-hostile NPC reacting to gunfire.

Patapon: In an embellished way, the patapon yell (their songs) during the entire levels.

Assassin's Creed:

Killzone 2:

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory:

Halo: Reach:

Uncharted 2: Among Thieves [SPOILER VIDEO]:

PapaSangre:

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Signature

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Synopsis

Creating a distinctive and memorable association with a sound.

Relationships

May relate to:
Identification .
May use many, including:
Aesthetics , Sound Effects , Character Soundprint , Footsteps , Grunts , Music .

Description

Sound is prevalent in many of the most recognized Signatures in games. A Signature supports a strong link between players and on what they keep in memory from their experience while playing. Not only, it evokes a memory but it also works as a token that allows different players to communicate their common experience.

Building a Signature is both relevant in emotional and commercial terms.

A Signature is, almost by definition, achieved through singularity. Music or particular Sound Effects are common ways to achieve it, but aspects of the Characters' Soundprint also constitute a vast space of opportunities.

Examples

Super Mario: The Music in Super Mario is one most recognized Signature in the history of games.

Sonic the Hedgehog: Sega possesses one of the most well-known Signatures in the world of games, in which the sound is the memorable element. It is a common element to many of their games. One of those games is Sonic the Hedgehog, which has one other widely recognized Signature: the Sound Effects – and their overabundance – signalling the Achievements when collecting rings.

BioShock: This is one of the games that build a Signature out of the Characters' Soundprint, mainly through the Dialogues.

Wolfenstein 3-D:

[show less examples...]

Ice Age 3: Scrat's Grunts and fast sequences of Footsteps constitute a Signature for this game.

Assassin's Creed:

Patapon:

Papa Sangre:

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Silence

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Synopsis

Inducing the perception of the absence of sound.

Relationships

Contexts:
Aesthetics , Acoustic Ecology , Emotional Script , Awareness , Anticipation .
Makes use of:
Ambiance .

Description

Silence is deeply associated with the Emotional Script. It may be associated to negative emotions (as explored in the survival horror genre) but it can also represent peacefulness (through quietness). Naturally, the types of explorations that we refer to here are those where the absence of sound is intentional and not a consequence of poor sound design.

Also, it is important to specify, that the meaning of "silence" is more psychological (perceptual) than technical. That is to say, it is about the perception of silence, not necessarily the actual absence of sound.

Silence is particularly explored in the survival horror genre, probably because it allows contrast with other relevant sounds. Referring to Silent Hill, Akira Yamaoka, said that "the lack of sound impresses people more than beautiful music if it’s contrasted" [2].

Silence may also be important in the Stealth genre. Some games explore the contrast between the loudness of the environment and that of the player's actions. In such cases, the surrounding sound servers as a sonic camouflage, and the quieter it is, the harder the challenge of remaining undetected.

Examples

Penumbra: Overture: Silence is central to the action where the PC gets frightened by the potential consequence of the sound of his own actions. Silence also contributes to emphasize the Breath and Grunts of the PC.

Silent Hill: A silent Ambiance and very few objects or events generating sound.

Silent Hill Homecoming: In a newer instalment of the Silent Hill series, Silence is still a prevalent Signature.

Patapon: If the player does not complete a level with success, the menu that follows feels extremely silent, although what is heard is the Ambiance of the night, with crickets and other aspects. In this particular game, characterized by intense sounds during gameplay and Menus, such composition sounds like Silence and it is very effective in emphasizing the impact of Failure.

[show less examples...]

Limbo: A paradoxical example of perception of quietness despite the presence of Noise.

Halo: Reach:

External Resources

[http://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story=27644 GDC: Grasshopper's Akira Yamaoka Talks Audio Techniques.
Movie “The Silence”: A story of a blind boy that identifies objects by the sound they make.
A section on Silence (Sonnenschein, 2001, pp.124-127).

References

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Sing to Act

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Synopsis

Performing songs to achieve a purpose.

Relationships

Context:
Consequent Sound , Make Sound not War .
May imply:
Sound Input .

Description

Some games feature the ability to Sing to Act, as part of the gameplay. This kind of exploration unfolds new opportunities in terms of the interaction with the environment. Some of them include the design of alternatives to the "classic" belligerent approaches (Make Sound not War), which in turn may have interesting effects in terms of the Emotional Script.

Being able to influence the game world and/or its inhabitants through the a PC's acoustic behaviour (Consequent Sound) contributes to augment the multimodal coherence, and to characterize the game world in a way that all entities don't behave as if they were sound insensitive.

A particular case, which we are addressing separately as a different design pattern, is Pitch Gameplay. Whilst in the case of Pitch Gameplay it is the performance of singing itself that is in focus (namely the evaluation of the accuracy of such performance), in the case of Sing to Act the act of singing is semantic instead, and it works as the means to achieve an end that is collateral to the act of singing. As such, it is not fundamental that Sing to Act is performed through actual Sound Input. In practice, that means that it may make sense that is (only) the PC to sing an not the player.

Examples

Journey:

Spore: Singing to conquer the friendship of another species.

Patapon: The patapons can invoke miracles by performing the corresponding song. These songs are progressively learned (Levelled Performance) and consist of playing a score using the drums.

LocoRoco: The LocoRoco singing in order to wake up and enchant an entity who will reward them with an item or who will unblock their passage. For the singing to work the LocoRoco need to be more than a certain number (in the example that would be ten).

[show less examples...]

Aquaria: Naija can sing the particular note that resonates with a certain entity, in order to trigger some behaviour (like releasing an item). Additionally, she can sing songs that are unlocked along the game (Levelled Performance) and that give her special abilities.

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Sonic Weapon

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Synopsis

Using sound to inflict damage.

Relationships

Context:
Consequent Sound , Engagement .
Contrasts with:
Make Sound not War .
Relates to:
Sound Decoys , Sound Suppressing .

Description

Some games include weapons designed to use sound as the destructive element.

Some other explorations of audio, such as the use of Sound Decoys, also have the potential to inflict damage. Yet, contrary to such explorations where sound is used as in a intermediate stage, Sonic Weapons use sound as the actual damaging element.

Examples

Beat Hazard: The output of the cannons is dictated by the intensity of the Music playing, which is customizable. So, Music works as ammunition and, consequently, its selection is relevant.

Dune/Dune2000:

Mortal Kombat: Deception:

Gnilley:

Zekkyo Senshi Sakebrain:

Patapon: Megapons carry massive horns and their (audible) sound waves transform into shapes that inflict much damage in the enemy.

[show less examples...]

External Resources

Megapon Units in Patapon

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Sound Decoys

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Synopsis

Using sound to fool the opponents.

Relationships

Context:
Stealth , Consequent Sound , Make Sound not War , Emotional Script .
Relates to:
Unaware NPC , Suspicious NPC , Seeking for PC , Sonic Weapon .
Often uses:
Foley , Sound Effects .

Description

A customary component of the gameplay is to deal with enemies along the game space. In some situations it is convenient to divert enemies’ attention and possibly to influence them to change their positions, either to be able to deal with one at time or to avoid confrontation at all.

Diverse forms of Sound Decoys can be included in the gameplay. Sound is particularly suitable for integrating meaningful decoy actions since it allows launching the decoy while avoiding visual contact. Spaces with reduced visibility also bring advantages both for the plausibility and of the usefulness of the decoy.

Examples

Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots: Snake lures an enemy out of his place by throwing an empty magazine into a more convenient location.

Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots: Knocking on objects is an alternative to attract a NPC, but it requires that the NPC is close enough and the attention is directed towards PC's position.

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory: Apart from being able to make noises by throwing objects that he can grab, Fisher can whistle to make an enemy go check the sound.

[show less examples...]

Dead to Rights: Retribution: Shadow can bark (either a short range bark or a louder bark) in order to lure enemies to a convenient position.

Spore Origins: One of the parts, in which the player can invest when upgrading the creature, allows emitting a sound that attracts easy prey. This feature needs to be timely managed because it takes some time to "recharge" (notice the indicator in the bottom-left corner).

Papa Sangre: In this particular level, noisy chicken may be released to divert the opponents from the PC's position and Footstep sounds. In other levels the PC's own Footsteps can be used to lure an opponent away from a position that needs to be visited (as the Helper Voice suggests).

Thief III: Deadly Shadows: Garrett can draw special noisemaker arrows in order to divert enemies.

Commandos BCD: All commandos can make a distracting noise by throwing stones to the behind of enemies. Additionally, one of the commandos, Tiny, has an acoustic decoy as part of his equipment.

External Resources

References to Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell "Distraction Camera": IGN Guides
Stevens, R., & Raybould, D. (2011, p. 125). The game audio tutorial a practical guide to creating and implementing sound and music for interactive games. Burlington, MA: Focal Press/Elesevier.

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Sound Effects

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Synopsis

Sounds that make abstract or imaginary objects concrete.

Relationships

Many contexts, including:
Engagement , Achievement , Failure , Beacon Locator , Window of Opportunity , Menus , Signature , ....
Close to:
Foley .
Relates to:
Acoustic Ecology .
Calls for:
Variety .
May call for:
Subtitles and Captions .

Description

Sound Effects constitutes one of the Sound Layers of an Acoustic Ecology, along with Foley, Ambiance, Music, and Dialogue. We are adopting one definition that allows differentiating them from Foley, which constitute a common discussion. Whilst Foley consists of the set sounds that characterize an entity or event (e.g., closing a door), Sound Effects are sounds that are created ("invented") so that they may be associated to an entity or aspect whose own sonic expression does not exist or is not perceptible. The most quoted example of Sound Effects is the sound of the laser sword from the Star Wars movie series. Still, it is worth mentioning that many authors/designers use both terms interchangeably.

Examples

Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars: The sound of the laser swords in the "Star Wars" media franchise is perhaps the most well known example of Sound Effects.

FlOw:

Tetris: Sound Effects are used to accompany flipping and sliding movements. The effect chosen for the impacts is closer to be considered Foley, given the resemblance to the sound of actual blocks falling on top of others.

Pac-Man:

[show less examples...]

Papa Sangre: Notice the explanation: "That sparkle sound is the sound of the light".

Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots:

Half-Life 2: Picking and activating the imaginary objects is accompanied with representative Sound Effects. (In the case of the ammunitions the Foley of loading them into a gun is used instead.)

Ico:

Crysis:

Halo: Reach:

External Resources

The history of the sound of laser sword [pending:[REF]]
There are many great resources on Sound Effects production, including: (Viers, 2008), and (Farnell, 2011, particularly part IV).

References

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Sound Input

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Synopsis

The way sound enters the game world.

Relationships

Contexts include:
Consequent Sound , Pitch Gameplay , Rhythm Gameplay , Make Sound not War , Address Others , Sing to Act .
May relate to:
Sound Visualization .
May call for:
Levelled Performance , In-game Feedback .

Description

Two approaches have been used to input sound: mapped (or indirect) and true (or direct).

Mapped input is by far the most frequent method and also the easiest to implement. Auditory stimuli are activated by non-auditory components of the interface or by diegetic actions. In practice, the player activates auditory events by pressing control buttons. Semantically, the game is the instrument.

Direct sound input allows the player to emit stimuli through a sound input device (microphone). There are several variations of direct sound input regarding the nature of the expected stimuli. Voice commands are a possibility that implies the software to be able to perform some level of speech recognition. Often the set of possible (voice) commands is reduced and carefully predetermined, in order to ease such recognition ([pending: ref to interview about Tom Clancy's EndWar).

Another approach is to allow disparate stimuli, provided that they carry particular acoustic properties that the game extracts through specific parameters (e.g., loudness, duration, frequency) ([pending: ref]). In practice that means the player is not forced to a particular sound – though the context may induce or inform about expected sounds. The fact that the player is able to experiment with different stimuli is a potential ludic aspect in itself. Another variation of direct input, where stimuli are not even strictly sonic, is to blow into the microphone in order to play in-game instruments ([pending: ref to Smule]). In this case it is the loudness of the (undisclosed) noise produced by blowing into the microphone that is used to model the interaction.

It is important to notice that although the designed solution for Sound Input is important, there is much more to explore regarding the possible contributions of sound to games beyond the activation model. Clearly being able to perform direct input enlarges the space of possibilities, but that alone does not bring great novelty to games, namely in terms of gameplay, narrative, and overall experience.

Examples

Gnilley:

Zekkyo Senshi Sakebrain:

SingStar Vol.3:

Aquaria:

Patapon: The whole visual representation pulses with the sound – from the most objective, as the rectangle in the border and the drums’ onomatopoeias (mapping the Sound Input), to the more subtle, as the moves and details of the characters (which map and the Sound Input and the sound they echo themselves).

[show less examples...]

Tom Clancy's EndWar:

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Sound Suppressing

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Synopsis

Enabling the reduction of PC generated sounds.

Relationships

Context:
Stealth , Consequent Sound .
Relates to:
Unaware NPC , Sonic Weapon .
Makes use of:
Foley .

Description

Sound Suppressing is a feature that makes sense when the acoustic presence of the player is relevant (Consequent Sound) for gameplay, particularly when the game involves Stealth actions.

Most common solutions include specific equipment (such as weapon silencers, footwear, etc.), spells or other sort of magical power, and low profile behaviour.

Examples

Thief III: Deadly Shadows: A moss arrow creates a carpet (of moss) that conceals the sound of Footsteps.

Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots: Equipping a (bought) silencer in a gun.

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory:

Crysis: Equipping a silencer in a gun.

[show less examples...]

External Resources

Details on moss arrows in Thief.

References

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Sound Visualization

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Synopsis

Graphical perception of the occurrence of sound.

Relationships

May relate to:
Sound Input , Rhythm Gameplay , Pitch Gameplay .
May use:
Subtitles and Captions .

Description

Sound Visualization consists of providing graphical representations to accompany occurring sounds. There are some reasons for this to be interesting:

• Emphasizing some aspect of the sound, by providing a cross-modal reinforcement of the perception.
• Enabling the game to be played and enjoyed without sound. This is relevant in several circumstances:
  • for playing in noisy environments (e.g., using mobile platforms).
  • for playing in places where the context obliges that the sound is mute or very low volume.
  • for hard-of-hearing or deaf players.
• In the particular case of Dialogue: overcome language comprehension difficulties by reading subtitles, possibly in another language, as explored in Subtitles and Captions.

Typical solutions adopted in games are (common to other media):

• Diegetic approaches:
  • Drawing sound waves, which allows locating the source, and possibly the reach and the receptors of that sound, but does not allow knowing the sound itself.
  • Drawing an onomatopoeia, possibly next to the source of the sound, which allows learning what sound it is, and possibly the source.
• Non-Diegetic approach:
  • as explored in Subtitles and Captions: Inscribe a descriptor of the occurring sounds as closed captions, possibly embedded in subtitles, which allows a verbose description of the several aspects of the sound.

Examples

Patapon: The whole visual representation pulses with the sound - from the most objective, as the rectangle in the border and the drums' onomatopoeias (mapping the Sound Input), to the more subtle, as the moves and details of the characters (which map and the Sound Input and the sound they echo themselves).

Cut the Rope:

Ecco the Dolphin:

[show less examples...]

Devil's Tuning Fork:

SingStar Vol.3:

Spore:

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time:

iGadget: In this game, due to the option of not voicing Dialogue, the subtitles are the means to convey the discourse.

Additional Comments

For game reviews sensitive to their usage by deaf gamers see deafgamers.com

References

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Stealth

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Synopsis

Low profile behaviours that include adopting a small soundprint.

Relationships

Context:
Consequent Sound , Anticipation , Emotional Script .
Includes:
Sound Suppressing , Sound Decoys , Eavesdropping .
Relates to:
Footsteps , Character Soundprint , Unaware NPC , Suspicious NPC , Seeking for PC .

Description

Sound plays a special role in Stealth actions: the sound associated to the PC's actions is relevant for the gameplay (that means Consequent Sound), namely in terms of the reaction of the NPC. Games of the Stealth genre (or sub-genre) make an extensive use of such explorations.

Being able to perform Stealth actions implies that it is possible to adopt a low profile behaviour in order to avoid unwanted attention. That calls for a proper design of the Character's Soundprint, which, for instance, depends on the magnitude of the movements. Footsteps, in particular, are usually explored with that purpose.

Using modifiers to conceal the sound of the PC's actions (Sound Suppressing) may also be integrated as part of the gameplay.

Conversely, sound can also be used as tool to overcome opponents. Two examples are the use of Sound Decoys and Eavesdropping.

Ways to provide feedback to the player regarding the interest and state of awareness of the NPC towards the PC include designing explorations such as Unaware NPC, Suspicious NPC and Seeking for PC.

The nature of Stealth actions propitiates design opportunities in terms of the Emotional Script, such as the exploration of Anticipation.

Examples

Dead to Rights: Retribution:

Deadly Premonition:

Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots:

[show less examples...]

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory:

Thief III: Deadly Shadows:

Papa Sangre:

Halo: Reach:

Additional Comments

Stevens, R., & Raybould, D. (2011, p. 122). The game audio tutorial a practical guide to creating and implementing sound and music for interactive games. Burlington, MA: Focal Press/Elesevier.

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Subtitles and Captions

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Synopsis

Text that represents occurring sound.

Relationships

Context:
Sound Visualization , Narrative , Dialogue , Foley , Sound Effects , Voice Acting .
Relates to:
Dubbing .

Description

Subtitles and Captions are one form of Sound Visualization that may allow overcoming transient or permanent inabilities to perceive sound stimuli, through textual representation. It is also the common alternative to Dubbing when there is Voice Acting.

Whilst "subtitles" typically refer to Dialogue, "captions" ("closed captions") refer to textual description of whatever aspects of occurring sound may be considered relevant, including features of Dialogue like mood and intensity and the identification of the talking character to avoid ambiguities.

Solutions adopted for the identification of the talking character include using the name of the character as a prefix, icons with the character’s face, and text colour.

Other aspects of captions follow the same patterns as captions for the deaf and hard-of-hearing in movies.

Examples

Dead to Rights: Retribution: The name of the character preceding the subtitles leaves no doubt about who the speaker is, even while out of sight.

Half-Life 2: Very detailed captions describe each relevant sound.

Cut the Rope: A caption in the form of a stylized onomatopoeia.

[show less examples...]

Patapon: Speech balloons represent messages that are not actually heard.

Portal:

Additional Comments

For game reviews covering analysis of subtitles and captions see deafgamers.com

References

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Suspicious NPC

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Synopsis

NPC’s behaviours evidencing suspicion for the PC’s presence.

Relationships

Context:
Awareness .
Contrasts with:
Unaware NPC , Seeking for PC .
May relate to:
Anticipation , Directionality .

Description

The representation of Suspicious NPC consists of small utterances (e.g., "Uh?!") or Dialogue (e.g., "I heard something...") that evidence that a NPC is hostile and has detected some sign of the PC's presence, which being confirmed would lead to Engagement. Suspicious NPC may fit or trigger an Anticipation phase.

In terms of Awareness of hostile NPC towards the PC, Suspicious NPC represents an intermediate state, between Unaware NPC and Seeking for PC.

Suspicious NPC usually works as a Beacon Locator of the NPC, in the sense that it contributes mostly for the player to become aware of a (nearby) offscreen NPC, who otherwise might attack furtively. In such cases, Directionality is helpful in promptly locating the threat.

Examples

Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots:

Far Cry 2:

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory:

[show less examples...]

Thief III: Deadly Shadows:

Crysis:

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Thoughts

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Synopsis

Revealing what a character is thinking of.

Relationships

Contexts:
Narrative , Emotional Script .
May relate to:
Narrator , Helper Voice .
Often uses:
Dialogue .

Description

Thoughts allow expressing messages in a diegetic way. From an emotional standpoint (Emotional Script), providing access to the PC's Thoughts also has the potential to enhance the empathy between the player and the PC. Additionally, the associated introspection contributes to inspire and maintain a sense of immersion in the experience.

Thoughts often consist of Dialogue that contributes to the Narrative, though other solutions have been explored. When Dialogue is used, it can actually be spoken (though usually in a quieter tone, being directed to the self), or it can be represented as a verbalization "inside the head" of the character. Usually, the latter case uses some acoustic effect, especially when the distinction is relevant (for instance when other characters are present).

Examples

Heavy Rain: Choosing Thoughts as part of the gameplay.

Tomb Raider Underworld: Lara's comment (to herself) helps interpreting and focusing on a relevant piece of the puzzle.

Silent Hill: The question allows the player to perceive the PC's interest and own difficulty in understanding the sight.

[show less examples...]

Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots: An flashback (audio only). In this one, Snake recalls a scene from the former Metal Gear Solid 2.

Sam & Max 301: The Penal Zone: Reading (listening to) other's Thoughts as part of the gameplay.

Heavy Rain: PC's Thoughts as hints on how to proceed.

Deadly Premonition:

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Time Twist

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Synopsis

Using sound to enhance the perception of time manipulations.

Relationships

Context:
Awareness .
May relate to:
Emotional Script .

Description

Games that include manipulations of time as part of their gameplay, often use sound to enhance the perception of such actions. Solutions typically follow the cinematic tradition. The most common cases are reversing, fast forwarding and slow motion.

Examples

Max Payne 2: "Bullet time": slow motion sounds analogous to performing such actions in a recording.

Bubble Breaker (only in some versions, including Windows Mobile): The Undo operation is accompanied by a "reversing" Sound Effect.

Braid: Reversing and forwarding time sounds analogous to performing such actions in a recording.

LittleBigPlanet: Reversing and forwarding actions sounds analogous to performing such actions in a recording.

Tomb Raider Underworld: Slow motion with effects and the with participation of the sound of Heartbeat.

[show less examples...]

Dead to Rights: Slow motion sounds analogous to performing such actions in a recording.

Demon's Souls:

Need for Speed: Undercover:

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Title Screens

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Synopsis

Sound during the presentation of a game product.

Relationships

Contexts:
Signature , Emotional Script .
Peers:
Menus , Cutscenes .
Often uses:
Music , Sound Effects .

Description

Title Screens constitute one of the distinct components of sound design in games, along with the introductory Menus, Cutscenes, and – the more "extensive" component – the sound occurring during gameplay.

It is noticeable that some games extend their Title Screens back to the presentation of distributor and development teams, mostly by customizing the respective logos with motifs from the game, sometimes resorting solely to sound (typically astonishing Sound Effects).

Although the exposition of the player to the Title Screens is very short when compared with the other sound design components, it constitutes the first contact of the player with the game, both when first running and in each new session. Being so, it plays an emotional role that sound can help to explore. Actually, the use of sound during Title Screens, including in those cases when is it starts early during the teams' presentations, has a role almost strictly emotional (so it may work as a first contribution to the Emotional Script).

Music is a prevalent solution for Title Screens, sometimes becoming part of the Signature of the game.

Examples

Heavy Rain:

The Path:

Sonic the Hedgehog: Same games from Sega, including Sonic the Hedgehog, share a short Signature that is used in Title Screens but which is repeated along the gaming session, between levels.

[show less examples...]

Uncharted 2: Among Thieves:

Mirror's Edge:

The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion: This Music, prevalent in the Title Screen, is part of the Signature of the game.

Demon's Souls:

Flower: Sound of Title Screens (which in this case is even dependent of previous accomplishments in gameplay) starts to be heard right from the presentation of the publisher and development team.

LocoRoco:

BioShock:

The Binding of Isaac:

Crysis:

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Trance

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Synopsis

Sound contributing to experiencing flow or deep immersion.

Relationships

Context:
Emotional Script .
Often uses:
Music , Entrainment .

Description

The ability to allow the player to experiment Trance can be highly potentiated by the use of sound. Still, it is important to recognize that Trance is highly dependent on the gameplay, to start with.

Trance refers to the ability to enter a state of flow or deep immersion, led by the presented stimuli, with consequent impact on the Emotional Script.

The use of sound to induce Trance, namely in Music through Entrainment, is practised for millennia (e.g., in Shamanism) and is well document [pending: Refs].

Examples

Journey:

Flower: Entrainment

Rez HD:

FlOw:

[show less examples...]

Chime:

Patapon:

pOnd:

External Resources

[pending: Add links to this matter in diverse domains]

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Unaware NPC

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Synopsis

NPC’s behaviours evidencing that the PC remains unnoticed.

Relationships

Context:
Awareness , Anticipation .
May use:
Chitchat , Grunts .
Relates to:
Stealth , Character Soundprint , Sound Suppressing , Sound Decoys .
Contrasts with:
Suspicious NPC , Seeking for PC .

Description

Unaware NPC refers to the acoustic manifestations of an hostile character who is not aware of the PC's existence/presence. This only makes sense with hostile NPC, i.e., with those who would not react peacefully if they knew about the PC. Other possible stages of Awareness of (hostile) NPC behaviour that are commonly represented through acoustic expressions are Suspicious NPC (while a NPC investigates) and Seeking for PC (between the moment when some NPC spots the PC and the moment the matter is somehow solved).

Typical explorations revealing Unaware NPC consist of Whistling and Humming [deprecated], Chitchat, and Dialogue about such unawareness.

In some cases Unaware NPC expressions are so audible that they first function as Beacon Locators of their emitters. While in the cases described above the player feels “These guys didn’t notice me yet”, in this latter case the reaction is "There are some guys over there". Naturally, once the PC approaches those characters, though their expression does not change, it is no longer perceived as a Beacon Locator but as an Unaware NPC behaviour.

Examples

BioShock:

Thief III: Deadly Shadows:

Crysis:

[show less examples...]

The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion:

Papa Sangre:

Tomb Raider Legend:

Far Cry 2:

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory:

Dead to Rights: Retribution:

Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots:

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Variety

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Synopsis

Triggering alternate sounds not to compromise the experience.

Relationships

Contexts:
Foley , Sound Effects , Ambiance , Music , Dialogue , Identification .

Description

Characters, objects and actions are associated to varied sound, including in Dialogue and Foley, for enhanced experience.

The lack of Variety in the sounds associated to characters, objects and actions can compromise the experience. The pertinence of variety extends to several features. In the case of Dialogue, Variety applies to the text being said and to intonation. If phrases are shared among several characters, variation also applies to voice pitch. If a same character sequentially repeats one particular phrase, variation applies to the time elapsed between iterations, too. In the case of Foley, if sound relates to physical reaction to contact, variability may be implied by the possibility of different nature and magnitude of the contact.

Some prejudices may result from a player’s perception of the lack of Variety. One is that it impairs a possible naturalist approach to immersion. Another is fatigue. Several factors may influence the perception of the lack of variety, including: the duration of the experience; the time elapsed between successive expositions to a same sound; and, the plausibility of the repetition. The plausibility of a repetition tends to be smaller for complex or improbable sound.

Examples

Assassin's Creed:

BioShock:

Uncharted: Drake's Fortune:

[show less examples...]

Red Dead Redemption:

Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Chaos Theory:

Half-Life 2:

Ice Age 3:

Papa Sangre:

Wolfenstein 3-D: Otocky:

Additional Comments

[pending see: (Alves & Roque, 2010)

Revisions

Introduced as Requisite Variety (in version 1.0)

External Resources

Variety (Principia Cybernetica)
Principles of Systems and Cybernetics: an evolutionary perspective
A "Gun Recording Guide" where the need for variety is emphasized.

References

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Voice Acting

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Synopsis

Performing and recording voices for characters and/or narrators.

Relationships

Context:
Dialogue , Narrative , Character Soundprint .
May call for:
Subtitles and Captions , Dubbing .

Description

In some games the use of Dialogue is complemented with Voice Acting. The adoption of Voice Acting implies important decisions – beyond creativity – namely because of the costs that may be implied.

Voice Acting enhances the way Dialogue contributes to the Emotional Script. Certain features of voice such as intonation are very direct indicators of the intended emotions. Still, it is relevant to be aware that these features can be cultural dependent.

Voice Acting may add great value to the game product. Similarly to what happens in animated films, contracting well-known actors to give voice to characters not only contributes to the quality of this feature but, very importantly, it can be a powerful marketing argument. Yet, this is the kind of strategy that is prohibitive to small budget projects.

Adopting a language for the Voice Acting is an important matter. It can become a handicap for players that are not able to understand that language. As in film practice, the inclusion of Subtitles allows reducing the issue but it is not always convenient, namely because it takes to the visual plane a message that could otherwise be dealt with strictly through sound. Dubbing is for that matter a better approach, but again may be too costly.

A form of giving voice to characters that reduces the problems of internationalization is to design a pseudo-language. Although they are theoretically less effective in communicating exact contents, pseudo-languages have several advantages beyond tackling at the problems of language and culture. Pseudo-languages can be designed to emphasize the communication of emotions and simple signalling, through the exploration of intonation and timing [pending:[REF]].

Examples

Fable III: Sir Ben Kingsley gave voice to Sabine.

Uncharted: Drake's Fortune: The voice of Nathan Drake belongs to voice actor Nolan North. Nolan also gave voice to Desmond in the Assassin's Creed series and Prince in Prince of Persia, among others.

Portal: GLaDOS was voiced by Ellen McLain, who also sang the game's well-known Music "Still Alive". Ellen also did Voice Acting in other Valve games including Half-Life 2.

[show less examples...]

Half-Life2:

Halo: Reach:

External Resources

Testimonies from the voice actors in Fable III
A compilation of Nolan North's participation in games: 1, 2
GLaDOS Speaks
Behind the Voice Actors [Videogames]
Ellen McLain – a voice appearing in all games of the Orange Box (includes Half-Life 2 and Portal)
Dialogue Editing for Motion Pictures: A Guide to the Invisible Art by John Purcell (2007)
ADR ("Automated" or "Automatic" Dialog Replacement)

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Window of Opportunity

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Synopsis

Enhancing the perception of a temporary possibility or favourable state.

Relationships

Context:
Awareness , Emotional Script .
Includes:
Hurry Up! , Imminent Death .
Often uses:
Sound Effects , Entrainment .

Description

Games sometimes include limited periods during which the PC enjoys specific abilities. Specific sound is commonly used in such circumstances, augmenting the Awareness for such scarce opportunity. Sound may also be designed to shape the Emotional Script, for instance, in a way that induces an arousal state during this period, through Entrainment.

To a certain extent Window of Opportunity is similar to Hurry Up!. They both call for an urgent acting. Yet their purposes are different. Whilst a Window of Opportunity may or may not be explored (it may even concur with a major goal), the case in Hurry Up! implies focusing in a particular goal and completing it before some time constrain is met.

Examples

Pac-Man: Once the PC eats a power pellet, the player may take advantage of a temporary ability to eat the enemies. A specific snappier Contextual Music signals such Window of Opportunity.

Sonic the Hedgehog: Some power-ups trigger faster movements, which are effectively accompanied by a Contextual Music that promotes a higher arousal state through Entrainment.

Patapon: The player has to perform consistently well in order to achieve the Window of Opportunity, called “Fever Mode”, and the maintenance of that period is dependent not on time but on the ability of the player to keep performing flawlessly. The Acoustic Ecology during “Fever Mode” is highly stimulating and rewarding. “Fever Mode” is actually an enhanced Engagement, much richer in terms of sound, involving Diegetic Music, Foley, and Sound Effects.

[show less examples...]

BioShock:

Guitar Hero 5:

Portal: